ch.8 Flashcards
1
Q
neurons transmits and processes info from through ?? define
A
action potentials: localized area of depolarization of the plasma membrane that travels along the axon.
2
Q
synaptic transmission
A
the signal reaches the synapse (end of axon) and its transformed into a chemical signal with the release of NT into the synaptic cleft
3
Q
what is the structure of a neuron from top to bottom
A
dendrites to soma to axon to synaptic knots
4
Q
the axon is surrounded by ?? what are the areas that dont have this called
A
myelin and the areas without it are called nodes of ranvier
5
Q
neurons only have ONE ?? but can have multiple ?? what are the two called
A
one AXON but they can have one dendrite called bipolar or many dendrites called multipolar
6
Q
a nerve is what
A
a group of different axons from different neurons
7
Q
what is the resting membrane potential of a cell? the inside of cell is what charge? outside?
A
resting membrane is -70mv and the inside of the cell is (-) and outside is (+)
8
Q
what are the ways you can maintain resting membrane potential
A
- NA/K ATPase that pumps 3 NA out of cell and 2 K+ into cell.
- leak channels that are always open and allow K+ ions to leak out
9
Q
what is depolarization? repolarization?
A
depolarization is the change in membrane potential to less (-) or even (+) . repolarization is when it goes back to negative
10
Q
what causes these polarizations
A
VG sodium and potassium channels that are located in the membrane of cell
11
Q
how does an AP occur
A
sodium channels are slightly opened to allow depolarization of cell to reach the threshold potential of -50mv, and the sodium channels fully open to allow Na ions in
12
Q
does Ap ever stop once it has started? what is all or nothing?
A
they cant stop until it reaches the synapse. neurons have a all or nothing response where unless the threshold is passes, nothing will occur
13
Q
how does repolarization occur
A
VG sodium channels inactivate very quickly and VG K+ take a bit to open but stay open longer to allow cell to go back to RMP at -90mv (hyperpolarization) and jumps back to -70mv
14
Q
what is myelin made up of? can AP occur here?
A
myelin is made up of schwann cells in the PNS a type of glial cell & oligodendrocytes in the CNS. Ap cannot occur because ions cannot travel freely in myelin
15
Q
if Ap cant travel in myelinated parts of axons, how does it travel?
A
it jumps on the nodes of ranvier through saltatory conduction
16
Q
what is a glial cell
A
a specialized cell (nonneuronal) that usually provides structural and metabolic support to neurons
17
Q
schwann cell does?
A
forms myelin in PNS and increases speed of AP
18
Q
oligodendrocytes does?
A
forms myelin in CNS and increases speed of AP
19
Q
astrocytes does?
A
in CNS guide neuronal development and regulate synaptic communication
20
Q
microglia does?
A
In CNS removed dead cells and debris
21
Q
during an AP, Na and K+ movement (what type of transport) is
A
passive and driven by gradients
22
Q
ependymal cells
A
In CNS produce and circulate CSF
23
Q
equilibrium potential
A
the membrane potential at which this driving force (gradient) doesnt exist therefore no ions would move across them. equal ions on both sides
24
Q
refractory period, what are the two phases?
A
when the neuron cannot be depolarized and its unable to transmit another AP after one just passed. absolute refractory period and relative
25
absolute refractory period
a neuron will not fire an AP no matter what. Na channels are inactive NOT CLOSED
26
relative refractory period
a neuron can be induced to make an AP but depol needs to be way stronger than normal because cell has been hyperpolarized
27
whats a synapse? what are the two types
a synapse is a junction between the axon terminus of one cell and dendrites of another cell. theres chemical and electrical
28
how does chemical synapse work
depol causes Calcium channels to open which causes exocytosis of NT to other cell and it binds to LG channels which causes AP in posy synaptic cell
29
how electrical synapse work? example?
occurs when cytoplasm of 2 cells are joined by a gap junction. examples are smooth muscle and cardiac muscle
30
what are some NT's? what do you call an NT that induced depol? repol?
Ach, dopa, GABA, serotonin. depol: excitatory repol: inhibitory
31
what is the adding effect of a bunch of synapses on one cell? can they be excitatory or inhibitory?
summation and they can be both
32
excitatory NT's cause what? inhibitory NT's cause what?
excitatory NT's cause excitatory post synaptic potential or EPSP and inhibitory causes inhibitory post synaptic potential or IPSP
33
receiving info is whos job? integrating info is whos job?
receiving info is sensory/motor and done by PNS and integrating is CNS
34
effectors
motor neurons that carry info from NS to organs that can act upon sensory info
35
motor neurons that carry info towards are called? away?
efferent neurons go from NS to organ and afferent neurons go from organ to NS
36
reflexes are
direct motor reponse to sensory input that occurs without conscious thought, doesnt use brain at all and mediated by spinal cord
37
muscle stretch reflex
a sensory nueron detects stretching of muscle and has a long axon
38
monosynaptic reflex arc
reflex involving only 2 neurons and 1 synapse
39
relaxation of one muscle and contraction of another muscle is an example of
reciprocal inhibitions
40
PNS is divided into
somatic (voluntary movement) and autonomic (involuntary like digestion, metabolism, circulation
41
autonomic is divided further into
sympathetic (fight or flight) and parasympathetic (rest and digest)
42
many sympathetic effects come from where
epinephrine from adrenal medulla
43
myelinated axons in both CNS and PNS are considered to be what matter
white matter
44
unmyelinated CNS cells are
grey matter
45
the entire CNS floats in ? what does it do?
CSF, CSF acts as a waste disposal, nutrient exchange, and shock absorber
46
what does spinal cord do
connected to brain and its the site for info integration and processing and simple reflexes
47
what does hindbrain include?
hindbrain includes medulla, pons, and cerebellum
48
medulla does
connects brain with cord and relies info between other brain areas and regulates AUTONOMIC FUNCTIONS (VITALS)
49
pons does
connection between brain stem and cerebellum, controls autonomic and coordinates movement and BALANCE
50
cerebellum does
where COMPLEX MOVEMENTS are coordinated, damage causes pour hand eye coordination and balance
51
midbrain does
relay for VISUAL and AUDITORY INFO, WAKEFULNESS TOO
52
forebrain has what two parts
includes diencephalon and telencephalon.
53
diencephalon contains what? what does each one do?
thalamus: relay and processing of sensory information
and hypothalamus: controls emotion, pituitary gland controls hormones
54
telencephalon has what two functions
left brain : controls right half of body and speech and right brain: controls left half od body and deals with visual spatial and music
55
how is left and right brain connected
by the corpus callosum which is a bunch of axons
56
what is the biggest region of the brain and what does the surface of the brain is called?
biggest region is the cerebrum and the surface consists of cerebral cortex
57
frontal lobe function
voluntary movement and executive function
58
parietal lobe function
sensation and taste
59
temporal lobe function
auditory and smell, and short term mem
60
occipital lobe
visual
61
what is brocas area? wenicke's?
brocas is speech production and wernickes is language composition
62
basal nuclei (basal ganglia) function
voluntary motor control
63
limbic system includes? function?
amygdala, dienolate gyrus, and hippocampus, deals with emotion and memory
64
all neurons entering and exiting the CNS are carried by?
12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31 spinal nerves
65
cranial nerve
convey sensory and motor function to and from brain stem
66
spinal nerve
convey sensory and motor function to and from spinal cord
67
the vagus nerve is a ?? and does what
a cranial nerve that affects that heart and GI tract and part of parasymp system
68
all somatic motor neurons innervate ?? and use what NT?
innervate skeletal muscle cells and uses ACH as NT
69
all somatic motor neurons have a ???
long dendrite extending from sensory receptor to cell body located in dorsal root ganglion in spine
70
what is dorsal root ganglion
a bunch of somatic neurons located in back of the spinal cord and protected by the meninges
71
the efferent neurons are made up of in the ANS?? define them
preganglionic: has cell body in brain stem/cordand sends axon to ganglion outside of spinal column
postganglionic: sends axon to an effector (smooth muscle/gland)
72
all autonomic preganglionic cells use what NT
ach
73
all parasymp neurons use what NT
ach
74
all symp neurons use what NT
noreepi
75
somatic efferent have neurons connecting where
directly to spinal cord connecting the somatic effectors (skeletal muscle)
76
autonomic efferent have neurons connecting where
pregang to spinal cord and postgang and postgang connects to autonomic effectors
77
axon of parasymp and symp
axon of parasymp are long so its close to target while axon of symp are short and far from target
78
where is the adrenal gland and what parts does it have
the adrenal gland is on top of the kidneys and it has the inside (medulla) and outside (cortex)
79
cortex of adrenal gland secretes what
glucocorticoids like cortisol and aldosterone and some sex hormones
80
adrenal medulla is part of what nervous system? what does it secrete
it is part of the symp system and secretes epinephrine
81
what is difference between epi and norepi
epi is a hormone while norepi is a nT
82
sensation is ?? perception is ??
sensation is the process of getting info from our receptors while perception is act of organization and interpreting
83
what are exteroreceptors? interoreceptors?
extero: outside stimuli
intero: inside stimuli
84
mechanorecepors? chemoreceptors?
mechano: react to mechanical disturbances like our hair cells in ears
chemo: chemicals like olfactory
85
nociceptors? thermoreceptors? electromagnetic receptors?
noci: pain and thermo: temo, electromagnetic: photoreceptors in eyes
86
what 4 properties need to be communicated to CNS
modality, location, intensity, and duration
MILD
87
what are tonic receptors? phasic?
tonic: fire AP's while stimuli is occuring
phasic: fire AP's once when stimuli starts
88
what receptors do not adapt
adapting means that while stimuli occurs, our brain will decrease firing frequency, nociceptors
89
propricoceptors
receptor for awareness of self, kinesthetic sense
90
gustation is what? olfactory is what?
gustation is taste and olfaction is smell
91
what taste receptors (flavors) do we have?
sweet (glucose), salty (Na+), bitter (basic), sour (acidic), umami (aa's and nucleotides)
92
outer ear is made up of what two structures
auricle/penne (outer ear), and external auditory canal
93
middle ear is made up of
ossicles (malleus, incus, and stapes), with the stapes attached to the oval window that divides middle ear to inner ear
94
inner ear is made up of
cochlea, semicircular canal, the utricle and saccule
95
in the coclea theres a membrane called ?? what does it help with
membrane called the round window and helps release pressure
96
the whole ear canal leads to the
eustachian auditory tube that passes from back of throat to middle ear
97
the basilar membrane, hair cells, and tectorial membrane together is called
organ of corti
98
what is perilymph and endolymph
fluid in cochlea
99
pitch? loudness? define
freq of sound is distinguished by which region of basilar membrane vibrates. loudness is amplitude of vibration
100
low freq stimulates where in the ear? high freq?
farthest from oval window (end of the cochlea), high freq stimulates at the base of cochlea (front)
101
what complex is responsible for balance and equilibrium in ear?
it is the vestibular complex
102
light enters the eye where? what is the white part called? what is behind the structure
light enters the eye through the cornea., the white part is called the sclera and behind it is the choroid
103
where is light focused on the eye
retina
104
inside the cornea is the what? what fluid is here? where does it lead to?
inside the cornea we have the anterior chamber filled with aqueous humor and it leads to the iris (colored part) and pupil (the middle)
105
what is behind the iris? where does it lead to?
behind the iris we have the posterior chamber and leads to the lens that fine tunes the light
106
what is the function of the curve of the eye? what designed this?
it has refractive power. it is designed by ciliary muscle
107
as light passes the cornea, the pupil and onto the retina, what chamber does it pass through to get to retina
passing the anterior and posterior chamber, you pass the vitreous chamber filled with vitreous humor
108
from the backwall of the retina, what is the sequence of cells that lead to the optic nerve
rod and cone cells connect to bipolar cells that connect to ganglion cells that merge at the optic disk and makes the optic nerve
109
the optic disk is called the ?? why?
blind spot because there no photoreceptors
110
in the retina, what is the part that has only cone cells
fovea and it has high acuity
111
in the dark, rod and cone cells are resting and are in the ??polarized state? what occurs when light is exposed, what NT will it release
they are depolarized in the dark and hyperpolarized in the light and release Glutamate
112
on center cells are ?? (in terms of glutamate)
in the dark they make dont glutamate and in light they do make it
113
off center cells are ?? (in terms of glutamate)
in the dark, they make glutamate and in light, they dont
114
cone cells deal with what? rod?
cone cells have red blue green receptors, while rod cells are for night vision
115
too much curve in eye causes what? what is this called? what fixes it?
causes light to bend too much causing myopia. this can be fixed by concave lenses (diverging) (NEARSIGHTEDNESS)
116
focusing light behind retina causes what? how to fix?
hyperopia and can be fixed by convex lens (converging) (FARSIGHTEDNESS)
117
what do old people get as they get older in eyes? condition
presbyopia, inability to accommodate focus
118
feature detection theory
a certain area of brain is activated when we look at diff. things
119
what is parallel processing?
many aspects of visual stimuli is processed simultaneously
120
what is absolute threshold? difference threshold?
absolute threshold: the smallest level of stimulus that can be detected
difference threshold: the smallest amount by which two sensory stimuli can differ in order for an individual to perceive them as different.
121
webers law
dictates that 2 stimuli must differ by a constant proportion in order for their difference to be perceptible
122
signal detection theory
Your ability or likelihood to detect some stimulus is affected by the intensity of the stimulus (e.g., how loud a noise is) and your physical and psychological state (e.g., how alert you are)
123
what are 4 outcomes for signal detection theory
a hit (stim present and noticed), a miss (stim present but missed), a false alarm, or correct rejection
124
gestalt psych?
the whole exceeds the sum of its parts, we perceive an object not lines or angles
125
nervous system is very ?? acting while endocrine is ?? acting
NS is fast acting while ES is slow acting
126
hormone
a molecule which is secreted into the BLOODSTREAM by an endocrine gland (no ducts)
127
exocrine gland
has ducts
128
what is a hormone receptor
a polypeptide that possess a ligand specific binding site
129
what is autocrine activity
some signaling molecules modify activity of the same cell it was secreted from
130
hydrophilic hormones are made where? how do they exert their power?
they are made in rough ER and modified in the golgi. since they cant pass through membrane, they have a receptor that starts second messenger cascade
131
how fast or slow does steroid or peptide hormones work
steroid has slow effects but long lasting while peptide is fast but short acting
132
insulin is what kind of hormone? made from?
a peptide hormone secreted by b cells in pancreas
133
epinephrine and thyroid is what kind of hormone?
AA derived
134
what is special about thyroid hormone
although it is AA derived, it acts like a steroid hormone
135
steorid hormones are made where? are they stored or used immediately?
they are made in smooth ER and they arent stored, so if it is made, it is used immediately
136
steroid hormones effect what directly? peptide?
steroid: affects transcription while peptide affects enzyme activity
137
what glands make steroid hormones?
testes, ovaries, placenta, and adrenal gland makes steroid hormones while every other gland makes peptide
138
hormones that control other hormones are called
tropic hormones like gonadotropic hormone
139
endocrine system maintains what body process? how does it do this
it maintains homeostasis by monitoring hormone levels bringing them up or down when needed
140
what does adrenocorticotropic hormone do? where is it made
it is secreted by the anterior pituitary and stimulated adrenal cortex to secrete cortisol and other hormones
141
what are releasing and inhibiting factors/hormones
these are molecules that regulate tropic hormones like CRH that regulates ACTH
142
what part of the pituitary glands deals with most of the ES
the anterior and this is called the hypothalamic pituitary control axis
143
what is the anterior pituitary
a normal endocrine gland and its controlled by the hypothalamus releasing releasing and inhibiting factors
144
what is the posterior pituitary
a bunch of axons that descend from hypothalamus and they have cells called neuroendocrine cells that secrete hormones
145
ADH is released by ? what does it do
the posterior pituitary gland and it causes kidney to retain water and increase blood pressure
146
oxytocin is released by what? what does it do
the posterior pit gland and causes uterine contractions and milk let down
147
thyroid hormone deals with what? production of thyroid hormone is increased by what
deals with metabolic and energy usage. it is increased by Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) from the anterior pit and commanded by hypothalamus
148
hypothalamus releases what hormones and what are effects
releasing and inhibiting factors and the effects are on anterior pituitary gland to modify activity
149
anterior pituitary makes what hormones, describe the hormones that are under the two main categories?
it makes tropic (TSH and ACTH) and gonadotropic (LH and FSH), it also makes growth hormone and prolactin
150
what are the effects of TSH? ACTH?
TSH: stimulates thyroid
ACTH: stimulates activity in the adrenal cortex
151
what are the effects of prolactin and growth hormone
prolactin: causes milk production
growth hormone: increase bone and muscle growth
152
what are the effects of LH? FSH?
LH: ovary and testes synthesis
FSH: follicle and sperm synthesis
153
what hormones does the posterior pituitary make
ADH (vasopressin) and Oxytocin
154
thyroid makes what hormones
thyroid hormone and calcitonin
155
what does thyroid hormone do? calcitonin?
thyroid hormone: stimulates growth in kids and metabolic processes in adults
calcitonin: lowers calcium in bone and kidney
156
parathyroid makes what hormone? what does it do
it makes the parathyroid hormone (PTH) and it increases calcium in kidney and bones
157
thymus makes what hormone? what does it do?
it makes tymosin and it helps with t cell development in kids
158
adrenal medulla makes what hormone? what does it do?
it makes epinephrine hormone. and it starts symp response
159
adrenal cortex makes what hormones?
it makes steroid hormones like cortisol, aldosterone, and the sex hormones
160
what does cortisol do? aldosterone?
cortisol: it increases blood and protein breakdown. it also decreases inflammation and immune response
Aldosterone: increases sodium reabsorption in the kidneys
161
what hormone does endocrine pancreas make
insulin and glucagon
162
what does insulin do? glucagon?
insulin decreased blood sugar and increase glycogen storage.
glucagon: increases blood sugar and increase glycogen breakdown
163
heart makes what hormone? what does it do?
atrial natriuretic factor and it increase urination to lower blood pressure
164
kidney makes what hormone? what does it do
erythropoietin and it increases bone marrow and RBC synthesis.
165
what occurs to Na/K ATPase when there is no oxygen present?
with no oxygen, there is no ATP produced therefore ATPase fails, causing the membrane to allow water to enter
166
what important process uses the influx of calcium?
NT release and muscle contraction
167
