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mcat bio textbook > ch.8 > Flashcards

ch.8 Flashcards

1
Q

neurons transmits and processes info from through ?? define

A

action potentials: localized area of depolarization of the plasma membrane that travels along the axon.

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2
Q

synaptic transmission

A

the signal reaches the synapse (end of axon) and its transformed into a chemical signal with the release of NT into the synaptic cleft

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3
Q

what is the structure of a neuron from top to bottom

A

dendrites to soma to axon to synaptic knots

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4
Q

the axon is surrounded by ?? what are the areas that dont have this called

A

myelin and the areas without it are called nodes of ranvier

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5
Q

neurons only have ONE ?? but can have multiple ?? what are the two called

A

one AXON but they can have one dendrite called bipolar or many dendrites called multipolar

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6
Q

a nerve is what

A

a group of different axons from different neurons

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7
Q

what is the resting membrane potential of a cell? the inside of cell is what charge? outside?

A

resting membrane is -70mv and the inside of the cell is (-) and outside is (+)

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8
Q

what are the ways you can maintain resting membrane potential

A
  1. NA/K ATPase that pumps 3 NA out of cell and 2 K+ into cell.
  2. leak channels that are always open and allow K+ ions to leak out
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9
Q

what is depolarization? repolarization?

A

depolarization is the change in membrane potential to less (-) or even (+) . repolarization is when it goes back to negative

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10
Q

what causes these polarizations

A

VG sodium and potassium channels that are located in the membrane of cell

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11
Q

how does an AP occur

A

sodium channels are slightly opened to allow depolarization of cell to reach the threshold potential of -50mv, and the sodium channels fully open to allow Na ions in

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12
Q

does Ap ever stop once it has started? what is all or nothing?

A

they cant stop until it reaches the synapse. neurons have a all or nothing response where unless the threshold is passes, nothing will occur

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13
Q

how does repolarization occur

A

VG sodium channels inactivate very quickly and VG K+ take a bit to open but stay open longer to allow cell to go back to RMP at -90mv (hyperpolarization) and jumps back to -70mv

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14
Q

what is myelin made up of? can AP occur here?

A

myelin is made up of schwann cells in the PNS a type of glial cell & oligodendrocytes in the CNS. Ap cannot occur because ions cannot travel freely in myelin

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15
Q

if Ap cant travel in myelinated parts of axons, how does it travel?

A

it jumps on the nodes of ranvier through saltatory conduction

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16
Q

what is a glial cell

A

a specialized cell (nonneuronal) that usually provides structural and metabolic support to neurons

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17
Q

schwann cell does?

A

forms myelin in PNS and increases speed of AP

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18
Q

oligodendrocytes does?

A

forms myelin in CNS and increases speed of AP

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19
Q

astrocytes does?

A

in CNS guide neuronal development and regulate synaptic communication

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20
Q

microglia does?

A

In CNS removed dead cells and debris

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21
Q

during an AP, Na and K+ movement (what type of transport) is

A

passive and driven by gradients

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22
Q

ependymal cells

A

In CNS produce and circulate CSF

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23
Q

equilibrium potential

A

the membrane potential at which this driving force (gradient) doesnt exist therefore no ions would move across them. equal ions on both sides

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24
Q

refractory period, what are the two phases?

A

when the neuron cannot be depolarized and its unable to transmit another AP after one just passed. absolute refractory period and relative

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25
Q

absolute refractory period

A

a neuron will not fire an AP no matter what. Na channels are inactive NOT CLOSED

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26
Q

relative refractory period

A

a neuron can be induced to make an AP but depol needs to be way stronger than normal because cell has been hyperpolarized

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27
Q

whats a synapse? what are the two types

A

a synapse is a junction between the axon terminus of one cell and dendrites of another cell. theres chemical and electrical

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28
Q

how does chemical synapse work

A

depol causes Calcium channels to open which causes exocytosis of NT to other cell and it binds to LG channels which causes AP in posy synaptic cell

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29
Q

how electrical synapse work? example?

A

occurs when cytoplasm of 2 cells are joined by a gap junction. examples are smooth muscle and cardiac muscle

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30
Q

what are some NT’s? what do you call an NT that induced depol? repol?

A

Ach, dopa, GABA, serotonin. depol: excitatory repol: inhibitory

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31
Q

what is the adding effect of a bunch of synapses on one cell? can they be excitatory or inhibitory?

A

summation and they can be both

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32
Q

excitatory NT’s cause what? inhibitory NT’s cause what?

A

excitatory NT’s cause excitatory post synaptic potential or EPSP and inhibitory causes inhibitory post synaptic potential or IPSP

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33
Q

receiving info is whos job? integrating info is whos job?

A

receiving info is sensory/motor and done by PNS and integrating is CNS

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34
Q

effectors

A

motor neurons that carry info from NS to organs that can act upon sensory info

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35
Q

motor neurons that carry info towards are called? away?

A

efferent neurons go from NS to organ and afferent neurons go from organ to NS

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36
Q

reflexes are

A

direct motor reponse to sensory input that occurs without conscious thought, doesnt use brain at all and mediated by spinal cord

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37
Q

muscle stretch reflex

A

a sensory nueron detects stretching of muscle and has a long axon

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38
Q

monosynaptic reflex arc

A

reflex involving only 2 neurons and 1 synapse

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39
Q

relaxation of one muscle and contraction of another muscle is an example of

A

reciprocal inhibitions

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40
Q

PNS is divided into

A

somatic (voluntary movement) and autonomic (involuntary like digestion, metabolism, circulation

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41
Q

autonomic is divided further into

A

sympathetic (fight or flight) and parasympathetic (rest and digest)

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42
Q

many sympathetic effects come from where

A

epinephrine from adrenal medulla

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43
Q

myelinated axons in both CNS and PNS are considered to be what matter

A

white matter

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44
Q

unmyelinated CNS cells are

A

grey matter

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45
Q

the entire CNS floats in ? what does it do?

A

CSF, CSF acts as a waste disposal, nutrient exchange, and shock absorber

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46
Q

what does spinal cord do

A

connected to brain and its the site for info integration and processing and simple reflexes

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47
Q

what does hindbrain include?

A

hindbrain includes medulla, pons, and cerebellum

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48
Q

medulla does

A

connects brain with cord and relies info between other brain areas and regulates AUTONOMIC FUNCTIONS (VITALS)

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49
Q

pons does

A

connection between brain stem and cerebellum, controls autonomic and coordinates movement and BALANCE

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50
Q

cerebellum does

A

where COMPLEX MOVEMENTS are coordinated, damage causes pour hand eye coordination and balance

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51
Q

midbrain does

A

relay for VISUAL and AUDITORY INFO, WAKEFULNESS TOO

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52
Q

forebrain has what two parts

A

includes diencephalon and telencephalon.

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53
Q

diencephalon contains what? what does each one do?

A

thalamus: relay and processing of sensory information
and hypothalamus: controls emotion, pituitary gland controls hormones

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54
Q

telencephalon has what two functions

A

left brain : controls right half of body and speech and right brain: controls left half od body and deals with visual spatial and music

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55
Q

how is left and right brain connected

A

by the corpus callosum which is a bunch of axons

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56
Q

what is the biggest region of the brain and what does the surface of the brain is called?

A

biggest region is the cerebrum and the surface consists of cerebral cortex

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57
Q

frontal lobe function

A

voluntary movement and executive function

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58
Q

parietal lobe function

A

sensation and taste

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59
Q

temporal lobe function

A

auditory and smell, and short term mem

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60
Q

occipital lobe

A

visual

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61
Q

what is brocas area? wenicke’s?

A

brocas is speech production and wernickes is language composition

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62
Q

basal nuclei (basal ganglia) function

A

voluntary motor control

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63
Q

limbic system includes? function?

A

amygdala, dienolate gyrus, and hippocampus, deals with emotion and memory

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64
Q

all neurons entering and exiting the CNS are carried by?

A

12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31 spinal nerves

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65
Q

cranial nerve

A

convey sensory and motor function to and from brain stem

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66
Q

spinal nerve

A

convey sensory and motor function to and from spinal cord

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67
Q

the vagus nerve is a ?? and does what

A

a cranial nerve that affects that heart and GI tract and part of parasymp system

68
Q

all somatic motor neurons innervate ?? and use what NT?

A

innervate skeletal muscle cells and uses ACH as NT

69
Q

all somatic motor neurons have a ???

A

long dendrite extending from sensory receptor to cell body located in dorsal root ganglion in spine

70
Q

what is dorsal root ganglion

A

a bunch of somatic neurons located in back of the spinal cord and protected by the meninges

71
Q

the efferent neurons are made up of in the ANS?? define them

A

preganglionic: has cell body in brain stem/cordand sends axon to ganglion outside of spinal column
postganglionic: sends axon to an effector (smooth muscle/gland)

72
Q

all autonomic preganglionic cells use what NT

A

ach

73
Q

all parasymp neurons use what NT

A

ach

74
Q

all symp neurons use what NT

A

noreepi

75
Q

somatic efferent have neurons connecting where

A

directly to spinal cord connecting the somatic effectors (skeletal muscle)

76
Q

autonomic efferent have neurons connecting where

A

pregang to spinal cord and postgang and postgang connects to autonomic effectors

77
Q

axon of parasymp and symp

A

axon of parasymp are long so its close to target while axon of symp are short and far from target

78
Q

where is the adrenal gland and what parts does it have

A

the adrenal gland is on top of the kidneys and it has the inside (medulla) and outside (cortex)

79
Q

cortex of adrenal gland secretes what

A

glucocorticoids like cortisol and aldosterone and some sex hormones

80
Q

adrenal medulla is part of what nervous system? what does it secrete

A

it is part of the symp system and secretes epinephrine

81
Q

what is difference between epi and norepi

A

epi is a hormone while norepi is a nT

82
Q

sensation is ?? perception is ??

A

sensation is the process of getting info from our receptors while perception is act of organization and interpreting

83
Q

what are exteroreceptors? interoreceptors?

A

extero: outside stimuli
intero: inside stimuli

84
Q

mechanorecepors? chemoreceptors?

A

mechano: react to mechanical disturbances like our hair cells in ears
chemo: chemicals like olfactory

85
Q

nociceptors? thermoreceptors? electromagnetic receptors?

A

noci: pain and thermo: temo, electromagnetic: photoreceptors in eyes

86
Q

what 4 properties need to be communicated to CNS

A

modality, location, intensity, and duration
MILD

87
Q

what are tonic receptors? phasic?

A

tonic: fire AP’s while stimuli is occuring
phasic: fire AP’s once when stimuli starts

88
Q

what receptors do not adapt

A

adapting means that while stimuli occurs, our brain will decrease firing frequency, nociceptors

89
Q

propricoceptors

A

receptor for awareness of self, kinesthetic sense

90
Q

gustation is what? olfactory is what?

A

gustation is taste and olfaction is smell

91
Q

what taste receptors (flavors) do we have?

A

sweet (glucose), salty (Na+), bitter (basic), sour (acidic), umami (aa’s and nucleotides)

92
Q

outer ear is made up of what two structures

A

auricle/penne (outer ear), and external auditory canal

93
Q

middle ear is made up of

A

ossicles (malleus, incus, and stapes), with the stapes attached to the oval window that divides middle ear to inner ear

94
Q

inner ear is made up of

A

cochlea, semicircular canal, the utricle and saccule

95
Q

in the coclea theres a membrane called ?? what does it help with

A

membrane called the round window and helps release pressure

96
Q

the whole ear canal leads to the

A

eustachian auditory tube that passes from back of throat to middle ear

97
Q

the basilar membrane, hair cells, and tectorial membrane together is called

A

organ of corti

98
Q

what is perilymph and endolymph

A

fluid in cochlea

99
Q

pitch? loudness? define

A

freq of sound is distinguished by which region of basilar membrane vibrates. loudness is amplitude of vibration

100
Q

low freq stimulates where in the ear? high freq?

A

farthest from oval window (end of the cochlea), high freq stimulates at the base of cochlea (front)

101
Q

what complex is responsible for balance and equilibrium in ear?

A

it is the vestibular complex

102
Q

light enters the eye where? what is the white part called? what is behind the structure

A

light enters the eye through the cornea., the white part is called the sclera and behind it is the choroid

103
Q

where is light focused on the eye

A

retina

104
Q

inside the cornea is the what? what fluid is here? where does it lead to?

A

inside the cornea we have the anterior chamber filled with aqueous humor and it leads to the iris (colored part) and pupil (the middle)

105
Q

what is behind the iris? where does it lead to?

A

behind the iris we have the posterior chamber and leads to the lens that fine tunes the light

106
Q

what is the function of the curve of the eye? what designed this?

A

it has refractive power. it is designed by ciliary muscle

107
Q

as light passes the cornea, the pupil and onto the retina, what chamber does it pass through to get to retina

A

passing the anterior and posterior chamber, you pass the vitreous chamber filled with vitreous humor

108
Q

from the backwall of the retina, what is the sequence of cells that lead to the optic nerve

A

rod and cone cells connect to bipolar cells that connect to ganglion cells that merge at the optic disk and makes the optic nerve

109
Q

the optic disk is called the ?? why?

A

blind spot because there no photoreceptors

110
Q

in the retina, what is the part that has only cone cells

A

fovea and it has high acuity

111
Q

in the dark, rod and cone cells are resting and are in the ??polarized state? what occurs when light is exposed, what NT will it release

A

they are depolarized in the dark and hyperpolarized in the light and release Glutamate

112
Q

on center cells are ?? (in terms of glutamate)

A

in the dark they make dont glutamate and in light they do make it

113
Q

off center cells are ?? (in terms of glutamate)

A

in the dark, they make glutamate and in light, they dont

114
Q

cone cells deal with what? rod?

A

cone cells have red blue green receptors, while rod cells are for night vision

115
Q

too much curve in eye causes what? what is this called? what fixes it?

A

causes light to bend too much causing myopia. this can be fixed by concave lenses (diverging) (NEARSIGHTEDNESS)

116
Q

focusing light behind retina causes what? how to fix?

A

hyperopia and can be fixed by convex lens (converging) (FARSIGHTEDNESS)

117
Q

what do old people get as they get older in eyes? condition

A

presbyopia, inability to accommodate focus

118
Q

feature detection theory

A

a certain area of brain is activated when we look at diff. things

119
Q

what is parallel processing?

A

many aspects of visual stimuli is processed simultaneously

120
Q

what is absolute threshold? difference threshold?

A

absolute threshold: the smallest level of stimulus that can be detected
difference threshold: the smallest amount by which two sensory stimuli can differ in order for an individual to perceive them as different.

121
Q

webers law

A

dictates that 2 stimuli must differ by a constant proportion in order for their difference to be perceptible

122
Q

signal detection theory

A

Your ability or likelihood to detect some stimulus is affected by the intensity of the stimulus (e.g., how loud a noise is) and your physical and psychological state (e.g., how alert you are)

123
Q

what are 4 outcomes for signal detection theory

A

a hit (stim present and noticed), a miss (stim present but missed), a false alarm, or correct rejection

124
Q

gestalt psych?

A

the whole exceeds the sum of its parts, we perceive an object not lines or angles

125
Q

nervous system is very ?? acting while endocrine is ?? acting

A

NS is fast acting while ES is slow acting

126
Q

hormone

A

a molecule which is secreted into the BLOODSTREAM by an endocrine gland (no ducts)

127
Q

exocrine gland

A

has ducts

128
Q

what is a hormone receptor

A

a polypeptide that possess a ligand specific binding site

129
Q

what is autocrine activity

A

some signaling molecules modify activity of the same cell it was secreted from

130
Q

hydrophilic hormones are made where? how do they exert their power?

A

they are made in rough ER and modified in the golgi. since they cant pass through membrane, they have a receptor that starts second messenger cascade

131
Q

how fast or slow does steroid or peptide hormones work

A

steroid has slow effects but long lasting while peptide is fast but short acting

132
Q

insulin is what kind of hormone? made from?

A

a peptide hormone secreted by b cells in pancreas

133
Q

epinephrine and thyroid is what kind of hormone?

A

AA derived

134
Q

what is special about thyroid hormone

A

although it is AA derived, it acts like a steroid hormone

135
Q

steorid hormones are made where? are they stored or used immediately?

A

they are made in smooth ER and they arent stored, so if it is made, it is used immediately

136
Q

steroid hormones effect what directly? peptide?

A

steroid: affects transcription while peptide affects enzyme activity

137
Q

what glands make steroid hormones?

A

testes, ovaries, placenta, and adrenal gland makes steroid hormones while every other gland makes peptide

138
Q

hormones that control other hormones are called

A

tropic hormones like gonadotropic hormone

139
Q

endocrine system maintains what body process? how does it do this

A

it maintains homeostasis by monitoring hormone levels bringing them up or down when needed

140
Q

what does adrenocorticotropic hormone do? where is it made

A

it is secreted by the anterior pituitary and stimulated adrenal cortex to secrete cortisol and other hormones

141
Q

what are releasing and inhibiting factors/hormones

A

these are molecules that regulate tropic hormones like CRH that regulates ACTH

142
Q

what part of the pituitary glands deals with most of the ES

A

the anterior and this is called the hypothalamic pituitary control axis

143
Q

what is the anterior pituitary

A

a normal endocrine gland and its controlled by the hypothalamus releasing releasing and inhibiting factors

144
Q

what is the posterior pituitary

A

a bunch of axons that descend from hypothalamus and they have cells called neuroendocrine cells that secrete hormones

145
Q

ADH is released by ? what does it do

A

the posterior pituitary gland and it causes kidney to retain water and increase blood pressure

146
Q

oxytocin is released by what? what does it do

A

the posterior pit gland and causes uterine contractions and milk let down

147
Q

thyroid hormone deals with what? production of thyroid hormone is increased by what

A

deals with metabolic and energy usage. it is increased by Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) from the anterior pit and commanded by hypothalamus

148
Q

hypothalamus releases what hormones and what are effects

A

releasing and inhibiting factors and the effects are on anterior pituitary gland to modify activity

149
Q

anterior pituitary makes what hormones, describe the hormones that are under the two main categories?

A

it makes tropic (TSH and ACTH) and gonadotropic (LH and FSH), it also makes growth hormone and prolactin

150
Q

what are the effects of TSH? ACTH?

A

TSH: stimulates thyroid
ACTH: stimulates activity in the adrenal cortex

151
Q

what are the effects of prolactin and growth hormone

A

prolactin: causes milk production
growth hormone: increase bone and muscle growth

152
Q

what are the effects of LH? FSH?

A

LH: ovary and testes synthesis
FSH: follicle and sperm synthesis

153
Q

what hormones does the posterior pituitary make

A

ADH (vasopressin) and Oxytocin

154
Q

thyroid makes what hormones

A

thyroid hormone and calcitonin

155
Q

what does thyroid hormone do? calcitonin?

A

thyroid hormone: stimulates growth in kids and metabolic processes in adults
calcitonin: lowers calcium in bone and kidney

156
Q

parathyroid makes what hormone? what does it do

A

it makes the parathyroid hormone (PTH) and it increases calcium in kidney and bones

157
Q

thymus makes what hormone? what does it do?

A

it makes tymosin and it helps with t cell development in kids

158
Q

adrenal medulla makes what hormone? what does it do?

A

it makes epinephrine hormone. and it starts symp response

159
Q

adrenal cortex makes what hormones?

A

it makes steroid hormones like cortisol, aldosterone, and the sex hormones

160
Q

what does cortisol do? aldosterone?

A

cortisol: it increases blood and protein breakdown. it also decreases inflammation and immune response
Aldosterone: increases sodium reabsorption in the kidneys

161
Q

what hormone does endocrine pancreas make

A

insulin and glucagon

162
Q

what does insulin do? glucagon?

A

insulin decreased blood sugar and increase glycogen storage.
glucagon: increases blood sugar and increase glycogen breakdown

163
Q

heart makes what hormone? what does it do?

A

atrial natriuretic factor and it increase urination to lower blood pressure

164
Q

kidney makes what hormone? what does it do

A

erythropoietin and it increases bone marrow and RBC synthesis.

165
Q

what occurs to Na/K ATPase when there is no oxygen present?

A

with no oxygen, there is no ATP produced therefore ATPase fails, causing the membrane to allow water to enter

166
Q

what important process uses the influx of calcium?

A

NT release and muscle contraction

167
Q
A

mcat bio textbook (10 decks)

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