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AP Psychology (2024-25) > Chapter 1 > Flashcards

Chapter 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

Psychology

A

scientific study of the behavior and mental processes of humans and animals

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2
Q

Cognition

A

how the mind processes and retains information; “think”

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3
Q

Behavior

A

refers to almost any activity that can be observed or measured

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4
Q

Introspection

A

an objective approach to describing one’s mental content; looking within yourself (inward) to observe one’s own psychological processes

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5
Q

John Locke

A

wrote an essay (An Essay Concerning Human Understanding)
i. Argued that the mind at birth is a tabula rasa (blank slate) on which experiences are written

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6
Q

Birth of psychology

A

1879
The first psychological laboratory was established by Wilhelm Wundt
Measured time lag
then divided into schools of psych

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7
Q

Structuralism

A

Founded by Wilhelm Wundt
makeup of conscious:
i. Sensations - sight, taste, smell, etc. (objective = real)
ii. Feelings - emotional responses (subjective = personal; of the mind)
iii. mental images- memories and dreams
Problems: results are personal

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8
Q

Functionalism

A

•William James
i. Proposed that more adaptive behavior patterns are learned and maintained while less adaptive patterns tend to discontinue
ii. first psych textbook Principals of psych
•turned into evolutionary psychology

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9
Q

Behaviorism

A

•John B. Watson
•Defines ‘Psychology’ as the objective study of observable behavior and the study of relationships between stimuli and responses, without reference to mental processes
•behaviorism began to overpower introspection,
•stimuli/response/reinforcement

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10
Q

Stimuli

A

A feature in the environment that is detected and leads to a change in behavior; triggers a response

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11
Q

Response

A

a movement or observable reaction to a stimulus

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12
Q

Reinforcement

A

a stimulus that follows a response and increases the frequency of the response

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13
Q

Gestalt Psychology

A

•Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, and Wolfgang Kohler
•Emphasizes the tendency to organize perceptions into wholes (greater than the sum of its parts)
•Insight

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14
Q

Insight

A

the sudden reorganization of perceptions allowing the sudden solution of a problem

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15
Q

Psychoanalytic Psychology

A

•Sigmund Freud
•Emphasized the importance of unconscious motives and conflicts as determinants of human behavior
•contemporary: psychodynamic thinking - the notion that underlying forces of personality determine our thoughts, feelings, and behavior

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16
Q

Humanistic Psychology

A

•Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow
•Says people are motivated by the conscious desire for personal growth

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17
Q

Eclecticism

A

The process of making your own system by borrowing from two or more perspectives

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18
Q

The Biopsychosocial Perspective

A

Combines three major facets of an individual
i. Biology
ii. Psychology
iii. Socio-cultural Interactions
Mind and body <———> interactions
influence

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19
Q

The Behavioral Perspective

A

Focusses on studying observable behavior and the principals of learning
i. Ex: Figuring out what triggers angry responses

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20
Q

The Biological Perspective

A

•Emphasizes behavior as a product of biological responses… made possible by the nervous system, the brain, hormones, disease, and genes
•Studies the influence of genes on personality traits, psychological health, and various behavior patterns

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21
Q

The Cognitive Perspective

A

•Focuses on the role of thinking in determining behavior

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22
Q

The Evolutionary Perspective

A

•Focuses on the evolution of social behavior and mental processes

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23
Q

The Humanistic Perspective

A

•Views behavior as reflection of self-awareness, including personal goals and internal growth
•Humanists consider personal experiences to be the most important aspect of psychology

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24
Q

The Psychodynamic Perspective

A

•Views the individual as a product of both conscious and unconscious forces
•Psychodynamic psychologists try to understand what kinds of perception, thinking, and memory go on below our level of awareness

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25
The Sociocultural Perspective
•View behavior as influenced by rules and expectations of social groups or cultures •Because of this, cultural values vary from society to society
26
Psychologist vs psychiatrist
•They both focus on mental/behavioral health, but differ on training and treatment approaches i. Psychologists can develop treatment plans, but CAN NOT prescribe drugs ii. Psychiatrists are medical doctors who can prescribe drugs
27
Hindsight Bias
Viewing an event as more predictable than it really is; "I knew it all along"
28
Self-fulfilling prophecy
prediction that results in behavior that makes the prediction come true
29
Scientific Method Step 1
1. Identify a research question i. Research questions are best directed at observable behavior, because it can be measured directly
30
Scientific Method Step 2
2. State the hypothesis of the research scenario i. A prediction about behavior that is tested through research
31
Scientific Method Step 3
3. Testing the hypothesis i. Use carefully controlled methods of observation ii. Must be testable; must also be falsifiable (falsifiability)
32
Scientific Method Step 4
4. Analyze results i. Look for patterns or relationships in the data
33
Scientific Method Step 5
5. Replication i. For findings to be confirmed, the study must be repeated and the same results must be produced
34
Meta-Analysis
A procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies (Non-Experimental Methodology)
35
Case-study method
A carefully detailed/ in-depth investigation of an individual or small group (Non-Experimental Methodology)
36
Naturalistic-Observation
Organisms are observed in their natural environments; "field study" (Non-Experimental Methodology)
37
Survey Method
i. A method of scientific investigation in which a large sample of people is questioned abt their attitudes or behavior ii. Information may not be reliable because people may not be honest in their responses iii.Wording is very important in surveys… (Non-Experimental Methodology)
38
Self-report bias
asking people about their thoughts/feelings/behaviors as opposed to directly observing and measuring them (a problem in surveys)
39
Social desirability bias
The tendency for respondents to answer questions in a manner that would be viewed as favorable by others (a problem in surveys)
40
Longitudinal method
i. Observing selected participants over a long period of time (usually at periodic intervals)
41
Cross-Sectional method
i. Instead of following a group over a number of years, researchers select a sample that includes people of different ages and then compare behavior ii. This information is less reliable (Non-Experimental Methodology)
42
Laboratory-Observation
i. Takes place in a laboratory - a place in which theories, techniques, and methods are tested and demonstrated (May classify as non-experimental or experimental)
43
A Study or Experiment
i. Takes place using independent variable(s) and random assignment of groups (Experimental Methodology)
44
Correlation
a measure of the extent in which two factors vary together, and thus how well either one predicts the other
45
Correlation Warnings
i. They are not always accurate ii. Many factors/variables (environmental) contribute to making something happen iii. Correlation does not prove causation
46
Variables
measurable factors that change in an experiment; anything that can vary Experiments can change a variable (cause) and measure how it, it turn, changes another variable (effect)
47
Independent Variable
a condition in a scientific study that is manipulated so that its effect may be observed
48
Dependent Variable
a measure of an assumed effect/outcome of an independent variable
49
Confounding Variable
a factor other than the factor being studied, influencing a study's results (aka Third Variable) i. By randomly assigning participants to experimental and control groups, it helps to limit the effects of confounding variables
50
Directionality Problem
a problem that occurs with two variables, where it is unclear which is cause and which is effect
51
Experiment
a research method that seeks to observe cause-and-effect relationships by manipulating one or more factors i. Subjects are given a treatment and observed carefully to determine if there is a difference in behavior
52
Operational definition
- a specification of how a particular variable will be quantified and measured i. Often, operationalization involves taking an abstract/vague concept that can't be directly measured and finding a measurable way to indirectly indicate it (Ex: Intelligence - define it)
53
population
An experiment may require the researcher to identify a specific group of interest to be studied
54
sample
The people/animals being observed / a segment of the population used in a study/experiment
55
Representation sample
the degree to which a sample reflects a fair/diverse characteristic of the population being studied; aka stratified sample
56
Convenience sampling
subjects are selected for sample participation because they are the easiest for a researcher to access (proximity/time/expense/willingness factor)
57
Sampling bias
the sample does not accurately represent the population, thus skewing results
58
generalized
Random sampling is a way to ensure a representative sample, thus results can be (extended to the population). If results are not random/ representative, they can only be extended to those people or people similar to them
59
Experimental group
participants receive a treatment (the independent variable) in an experiment
60
Control group
participants who do not receive the experimental treatments but for whom all other conditions are comparable to those of experimental subjects' used as a comparison for evaluating the effectiveness of the treatment
61
Placebo
a bogus treatment that has the appearance of being genuine
62
Placebo effect
results caused by expectation that the substance or condition is real/active i. There may be more than one control group in a study i. One group may receive the bogus fake treatment ii. Another may receive no treatment at all - to study placebo effect
63
Single-blind study
participants don't know whether they are in the control or experimental group
64
Double-blind study
both participants and experimenters are unaware of who receives the treatment Better than single-blind; may eliminate experimenter bias
65
experimenter bias
treating the control and experimental groups differently to increase the chance of getting desired results in study
66
Qualitative
collects and evaluates descriptive data (such as words) to understand thoughts, feelings, attitudes, etc. (Why? Questions)
67
Quantitative
collects and evaluates numerical data to understand effect/relationships (how many/much)
68
Likert Scales
(ie. Strongly agree; agree, neutral, etc.) provide quantitative data about qualitative aspects such as attitudes
69
Ethics
morality; referring to one's system of standards for proper/responsible behavior ○ The problem in psychology is that ethical considerations are often central in gathering, accumulating, or discovering information Harm: should researchers be expected to take steps to protect participants from harm?
70
Institutional Review
The US federal gov't has a series of rules and regulations that must be followed in research. Sates, institutions, or independent ethics committees oversee research on human or animal subjects to ensure the research is 'scientific, ethical, and regulatory' ○ Aka: there are rules and regulations that have to be followed
71
Confidentiality
Secrecy; Not to be disclosed
72
Informed consent
the term used to indicate that a person has agreed to participate in research after receiving information abt. The purpose of the study and the nature of the study/treatments i. Includes info on dangers of study, why study is being done, expectations, etc. ii. Volunteers are also given the opportunity to drop out of the research project, even after it has begun
73
Informed assent
term to indicate that a person not competent to give informed consent (under 18 or cognitively-impaired) has agreed to participate in a research study ○ Note: they may not fully understand the consequences of treatment/participation
74
Confederate
research actor who agrees to participate along with actual test subjects
75
debriefed
After the study is concluded, subjects are (given full information about a just-completed procedure) -- including any deception that may have been used
76
Descriptive Stats
Summarize/ describe numerical data ○ Measures all the subjects and summary data is certain
77
Inferential Stats
numerical data that allows one to generalize; estimates based on sample data
78
Correlation coefficient
a numerical measure of the strength of two variables; falls somewhere between -1 and 1 with 0 being No Correlation i. A larger sample size helps to ensure that the observed effect did not occur simply due to a sampling error Replication data also ensures results are accurate (not a fluke
79
Replication
ensures results are accurate (not a fluke)
80
Mean
the arithmetic average (sum total of all scores divided by the number of scores)
81
Median
the midpoint/halfway point in a data set (50th percentile)
82
Mode
the most frequently occurring score or scores in a data set
83
Skewed
a representation of scores that is lopsided due to a few way-outs scores
84
Regression toward the mean
As more data is collected, the chance that random factors could influence the data is reduced
85
Range
the difference between the lowest and highest scores in a distribution
86
Standard deviation
the amount of variation in relation to the mean score
87
Normal Curve
bell-shaped curve that represents a normal distribution of scores i. 68%; 95%; 99.7%

AP Psychology (2024-25) (11 decks)

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