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AP Psychology (2024-25) > Chapter 2 > Flashcards

Chapter 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

phrenology

A

studying bumps on the skull) was a popular tool for determining a person’s mental abilities and character traits
led to…

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2
Q

localization of function

A

the idea that various brain regions have particular functions
from phrenology

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3
Q

Neurons

A

neural cells specially designed to share information electrochemically with other neurons
○ Throughout life, new neurons are born and unused neurons wither away

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4
Q

Cell body

A

the cell’s nucleus and life-support center; AKA Soma (body)

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5
Q

Dendrites

A

fibers that receive and integrate information, conducting it toward the cell body (mouth)

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6
Q

Axon

A

the cell’s single lengthy fiber that passes messages through its branches to other neurons (pooper)

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7
Q

myelin (myelin sheath)

A

Much as home electrical wire is insulated, a segmented layer of fatty tissue called insulates the axons of some neurons and helps speed their impulses
i. As myelin is laid down up to about age 25, neural efficiency, judgment, and self-control increases
ii. If the myelin sheath degenerates, multiple sclerosis results - meaning communication to muscles slows, with eventual loss of muscle control

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8
Q

multiple sclerosi

A

If the myelin sheath degenerates, meaning communication to muscles slows, with eventual loss of muscle control

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9
Q

glial cells

A

Supporting these billions of nerve cells are (like worker bees)
i. They provide structure, ‘insulating’ myelin, communication, and mop up neurotransmitters

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10
Q

Action Potential

A

neuron sends a message by firing an electrical impulse down its axon

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11
Q

excitatory

A

Most neural signals - they transmit the flow of information to make an action potential

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12
Q

inhibitory

A

some - regulate the activation of excitatory signals

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13
Q

threshold

A

○ If excitatory signals exceed inhibitory signals by a minimum intensity, the combined signals trigger an action potential

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14
Q

synapse

A

○ Info is sent from the axon terminal of one cell to the dendrite of another, but it must cross the (gap/junction between the two cells)

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15
Q

neurotransmitters

A

○ The messages are sent from the axons across the synapse through the release of (specialized biochemical messages stores in sacs in the axon terminal); NT’s
i. Excess “” are reabsorbed by the sending neuron, or drift away and are broken down by the body’s enzymes

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16
Q

Reuptake

A

a neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron

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17
Q

Acetylcholine

A

involved in control of muscles and memory (a-set-l-cole-lean)
i. Myasthenia gravis is a disorder in which the immune system make antibodies that block ACh receptor sites - with fewer receptor sites, the muscles receive fewer signals and become weak

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18
Q

Dopamine

A

involved in reward/pleasure/emotion, motor behavior, and attention
i. Not enough: Contributes to psychological disorders like Schizophrenia
ii. Too much: Tremors and decreased mobility role in Parkinson’s disease

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19
Q

Serotonin

A

Sleep, mood, and appetite
little - depression

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20
Q

Norepinephrine

A

Alertness and arousal; “Fight-or-Flight”
little - depression

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21
Q

Endorphins

A

Morphine-like effects on the mind and body for pain and pleasure

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22
Q

Substance P

A

Transmits pain signals

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23
Q

GABA

A

Inhibitory neurotransmitter; increases tranquility
little - seizures or insomnia

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24
Q

Glutamate

A

excitatory - involved in learning and memory
too much - migraines

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25
Nervous system
the body's electrochemical communication network consisting of the nerve cells of the central and peripheral nervous systems
26
Reflex arc
Three types of neurons carry information through the nervous system. Sensory Neurons Motor Neurons Interneurons
27
Sensory Neurons
Carry incoming information (from the body's tissues and sensory receptors) to the brain and spinal cord; aka Afferent neurons
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Motor neurons
Carry outgoing information (instructions) from the brain and spinal cord to the body's muscles and glands; aka Efferent neurons
29
Interneurons
Neurons located within the brain and spinal cord; they process information between the sensory input and motor input
30
Central Nervous System
○ CNS comprised of the neurons of the brain and spinal cord ○ The brain and spinal cord are bathed in a cerebrospinal fluid, which helps to cushion the areas, flush waste products, and even carry some chemical signals -Brain -Spinal Cord
31
The Brain
i. The brain's neurons cluster into work groups called neural networks
32
The Spinal Cord
Reflex, Reflex arc
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Reflex
a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus
34
Reflex arc
Our body set up so that neural activity (finger touching hot flame) travels via sensory neurons to the interneurons in the spinal cord. These interneurons respond by activating motor neurons leading to (in this case) the muscles in your arm
35
Peripheral Nervous System
Basically all the other nerves of the body Somatic Autonomic
36
Somatic
transmits sensory messages to CNS and allows voluntary movement (activated by touch, temp, pain, body positions, sight, etc.) nervous system
37
Autonomic
regulates vital, automatic functions of internal organs (heartbeat, breathing, blood pressure, digestion, etc.) i. Sympathetic - arouses and expends energy; "fight or flight"; activated at times of stress ii. Parasympathetic - conserves energy; returns body's functions to names levels nervous system
38
Homeostasis
a state of equilibrium/normalcy for the body
39
Endocrine system
○ The endocrine system is a communication system which secretes hormones (chemical messengers in the bloodstream), which influences our interest in food, aggression, etc. ○ While the nervous system sends messages lickety-split, endocrine messages take several seconds or more to reach their destinations Melatonin Adrenaline
40
Melatonin
produced by the brain and helps regulate sleep/maintain circadian rhythms
41
Adrenaline
released when we experience stress; linked to fight or flight response to aid breathing/blood circulations
42
Pituitary Gland
the most influential gland of ES - regulates growth hormones, cortisol, and oxytocin endocrine system
43
oxytocin
important for contractions and trust Regulated by Pituitary Gland
44
Lesion
tissue destruction or removal
45
EEG
Function i. Electrodes measure overall brain activity
46
CAT/CT
Anatomy i. Beefed up x-ray taken at different angles
47
PET
Function i. Radioactive glucose… gobbled up during brain activity
48
fMRI
Function i. Detectors transmit info abt areas of naturally occurring oxygen metabolism via blood in the brain
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MRI
Anatomy i. Magnetic fields from water molecules show 3-D soft tissue scan of brain (density and location of brain material)
50
brainstem
oldest part and central core of the brain i. Responsible for autonomic survival functions ii. Its base is the medulla, which controls heartbeat and breathing ○ Sitting at the top of the brainstem is the thalamus, which is the brain's sensory control center i. It receives info from all the senses (except smell), an routes the information to the appropriate higher brain regions
51
reticular activating system
Inside the brainstem (right between your ears) i. It is a neural network extending from the spinal cord right up through the thalamus -- controls sleep/wake transitions and arousal
52
cerebellum
Extending from the rear of the brainstem is the baseball-sized i. Functions include coordinating movement and balance, enabling nonverbal learning and discriminating time ii. Ties to well-rehearsed movements such as dancing/athletics or playing an instrument iii. Under the influence of alcohol, coordination suffers
53
Limbic System
a neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres; it is associated with emotions and drives contains the hypothalamus (which controls the nearby pituitary gland), the amygdala, and the hippocampus
54
hypothalamus
Just below the thalamus i. It directs maintenance activities (The 5 Fs: Food/Fight/Flight/Fahrenheit/Sex), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward; runs your biological clock
55
amygdala
two lima-bean-sized/almond shaped neural clusters linked to the emotions, especially fear and aggression
56
hippocampus
helps process memories of facts and events, before being sent to other location sin the cerebral cortex i. People who lose the hippocampus to surgery or injury show an inability to form new memories of facts and events
57
cerebrum
the wrinkly stuff we see/associate as 'brain'
58
corpus callosum
The cerebral cortex is composed of two sides (hemispheres) connected by a group of nerve fibers i. The corpus callosum acts as a communication bridge between the two hemispheres ii. The brain is contralateral - meaning: information received on one side of the body is transmitted to the opposite hemisphere of the brain
59
Frontal
Higher processing: such as speaking, thinking, judgement, personality, and emotion
60
Parietal
Receives sensory input for pain, warmth and cold. Functions also include perception
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Occipital
Visual information interpreted
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Temporal
Auditory/linguistic information interpreted
63
Sensory and motor cortexes
○ The Sensory (parietal) and Motor (frontal) cortexes are located in the very small strips, and they control the opposite side of the body ○ Damage to a lobe/area may affect sensory ability but may not totally eliminate it
64
Association areas
areas of the cerebral cortex involved in higher cognitive functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking (not sensory or controlling muscle movement) ○ Association areas are found in all four lobes - damage to any of them rarely affects motor skills… it primarily affects cognitive skills or personality
65
Neuroplasticity
the brain's ability to 'rewire', especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experiences i. Studies show that the younger you are when the brain receives damage, the more likely it is to reorganize and make greater use of the unaffected areas
66
'split-brain' operation
corpus callosum is separated cooperation between hemispheres isn't possible so the separated systems work as best they can… one usually faster than the other ○ Right field of each eye/left hemi; left field of each eye/right hemi i. Split brain operations do not affect optic chiasm - the place where the nerves connecting the eyes to the brain cross
67
Dual Processing
the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks
68
Blindsight
a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it
69
Heredity
genetic transfer from parent to offspring; nature
70
Environment
non-genetic influences; nurture
71
Identical
monozygotic) - twins develop from a single egg that splits
72
Fraternal
(dizygotic) - twins develop from separate fertilized eggs; genetically no closer than ordinary brothers/sisters… they just share a prenatal environment
73
Heritability
the extent to which variation within a group can be attributed to inherited genetic factors Ranged from 0 to 1; 0 indicated environment totally responsible for differences in the trait and 1 means that all variation in the trait can be accounted for genetically
74
Epigenetics
the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change i. Looks at what environmental factors turn genes on or off and how that info is passed to offspring
75
Evolutionary psychology
the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection
76
natural selection
traits that better help an organism survive and procreate will likely be passed to offspring
77
mutations
random errors in gene replication that lead to change

AP Psychology (2024-25) (11 decks)

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