Chapter 1 Human Body Organization Flashcards
(249 cards)
1
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Regional Anatomy
A
study of interrelationships of all the structures in specific body region, ex. Abdomen
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Systemic Anatomy
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Study of STRUCTURES that make up discrete body system, group of structures that work together to perform a unique body function
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Anatomy
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Strucure
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Physiology
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Function
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Human Physiology
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study of chem & physics of structures of the body & ways in which they work together to support func of life
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Homeostasis
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State of steady internal conditions maintained by living things
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Small to Large Cellular Structures
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atom -> molecule -> organelle -> cell
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Human Cell Make Up
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Flexible membrane that encloses cytoplasm (water-based cellular fluid) w/a variety of organelles
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Tissues
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cluster of cells that are similar to each other & work together to perform a body function. 4 major types of tissues: connective, muscle, nervous, epithelial
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Organ
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Two or more different tissues (groups of cells) combine to form an organ, ex. Bladder (smooth & skeletal muscles)
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Organ System
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two or more organs work together to perform major functions or meet physiological needs of the body. However, an organ may contribute to the functions of multiple organ systems, there are 11 major systems
12
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Organismal Level
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living being that has a cellular structure & can independently perform all physiologic functions necessary for life
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A
14
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What are the functions of cells internal compartments
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Separated from external environmental threats, keep cells moist & nourished, separate internal body fluids from microorganisms that grow on body surfaces (lining of certain tracts),
15
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Largest organ system
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Integumentary system: skin, hair, nails
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Responsiveness
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ability of an organism to adjust to changes in its internal & external environments, ex. increase in body temp will create sweating
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Movement
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actions at joints of body, motion of individual organs & cells
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Development
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changes body goes through, ex. differentiation (unspecialized cells become specific to a function & structure), growth/repair
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First Law of Thermodynamic
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energy can neither be created nor destroyed, only change form, 2 types of reactions
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Catabolism
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larger complex substances (carbs, lipids, proteins) are broken down into smaller, simpler molecules, releases energy (heat)
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Anabolism
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smaller, simple molecules (fatty acids, amino acids, sugars) combine into larger, complex substances, utilizing energy
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Metabolism
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Catabolism + Anabolism reactions w/in body, simultaneously & continuously, sum total of all chem reactions that go on to maintain organism’s health & life
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How much of air is oxygen
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20%
24
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3 Classes of Nutrients
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water, macros, micros
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What happens when your body is not within homeostatic range of temperature?
Metabolism cannot proceed because certain proteins lose their normal structure & ability to function
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Atmospheric Pressure
pressure exerted by gases (nitrogen & O2) , keeps gases w/in your body
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Altitude Sickness
high altitudes exert less pressure so gasses are not pressed from your body
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Decompression Sickness
gasses dissolved in blood/body tissues are no longer dissolved because of reduction of pressure on body too quickly, when moving from high pressure to low pressure too quickly the nitrogen is released from blood too quickly and creates bubbles, symptoms are headache, vision disturbances
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Hyperbaric chambers
introduces oxygen at a high pressure & increases oxygen in blood to replace lost nitrogen
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Conscious, voluntary movement is accomplished by
skeletal muscles
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setpoint of homeostasis
physiological value around which the normal range fluctuates, if it varies & goes too high/low the body has systems in place to reduce/negate stimulus through negative feedback mechanism
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what is setpoint for body temp
37c or 98.6f
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negative feedback
mechanism that reverses a deviation from set point
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sensor
aka receptor, in feedback system it monitors physiological value
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control center
compares value to normal range in feedback system
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effector
causes change to reverse the situation & return value to normal range in feedback system
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negative feedback loop process
stimulus -> sensor -> control -> effector
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What are the 3 reactions from the "heat-loss center" part of the brain when temp exceeds normal range?
1. blood vessels in skin dilate allowing blood & heat to radiate into environment
2. more water used in blood & sweat
3. respirations increases & person may breathe through mouth
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Positive Feedback
intensifies body's physiological condition, ex. childbirth & reversing extreme damage to body
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Identify the stimulus, sensor, & effectors of child birth
stimulus-> first contraction of labor, head moves toward cervix
Sensor-> nerve cells in cervix that monitors degree of stretching
effector-> oxytocin causes stronger contractions
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Thyroid effects which process
metabolism
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superior
above or higher
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inferior
below or lower than another
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anterior (ventral)
front/ towards front of body
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posterior (dorsal)
back/direction toward back of body
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lateral
side/direction toward side of body
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medial
middle/toward middle of body
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proximal
position in limb that is nearer to point of attachment or trunk of body
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distal
point of limb that is nearer to point of attachment of trunk of body
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superficial
position closer to surface of body
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frontal plane (coronal plane)
divides body into anterior (front) or posterior (rear) portion
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transverse plane (horizontal/axial)
divides body in upper and lower portions
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sagittal plane
vertically into right & left portions
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midsagittal (median)
directly down the middle
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parasagittal plane (longitudinal)
line that separates left & right but is not proportionally down the middle
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flexion
only in sagittal plane, ex. forward bending of neck or body
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extension
posterior directed motion ex. bending head backwards, straightening from flexed position
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abduction
moving limb/hand laterally away from the body, spreading fingers/toes
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adduction
brings limb/hand toward/across midline of body
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circumduction
movement of limb, hand, finger in circular pattern using sequential combo of flexion, adduction, extension, abduction motions
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lateral rotation
rotating away from midline of body
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medial rotation
rotating joint inwards to midline of body
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dorsal (posterior) cavity
contains cranial and vertebral cavities
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what are the 2 largest cavities
dorsal & ventral body
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ventral cavity
towards the front of the body, contain the thoracic & abdominopelvic cavities
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thoracic cavity
superior subdivision of anterior cavity, enclosed by rib cage, contains lungs/heart, diaphragm is floor of cavity
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abdominopelvic cavity
largest cavity of the body, with in is 2 cavities & no membrane separates the abdominal cavity from the pelvic cavity
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how many regions are there
9- in order from top left to bottom right,
right hypochondriac region, epigastric region, left hypochondriac region, right lumbar region, umbilical region, left lumbar region, right iliac region, hypogastric region, left iliac region
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What are the 2 cavities w/in thoracic cavity
mediastinum, pleural
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dorsal cavity
towards the back of the body, contain spinal & cranial cavities
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serous membrane (serosa)
thin membrane that covers walls & organs in thoracic & abdominopelvic cavities& heart
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parietal layers
line the walls of the body cavity (pariet- refers to cavity wall)
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visceral layer
covers organs (viscera)
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tomography
imaging by sections
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what does CT stand for
computed tomography
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what does MRI stand for
magnetic resonance imaging
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How does ultrasonography work
transmission of high frequency sound waves into body to generate an echo signal that is converted by a computer into images
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what is the function of cerebrospinal fluid
protect & cushion brain
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peritoneum
envelops visceral organ of the abdominal cavity
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pleura
serous membrane surrounding lungs in pleural cavity
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pericardium
serous membrane that surrounds heart in the pericardial cavity
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election charge
negative, 1/2000th mass of a proton or neutron
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proton
positive, in nucleus
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neutron
neutral, nucleus
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planetary model
electrons are in fixed orbit as rings, precise distance from nucleus
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electron cloud model
electrons of carbon are shown in variety of locations
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elements
118 in the world, purest substance, cannot be created or destroyed
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What are 3 different types of chemical bonding
ionic, covalent, hydrogen
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cation
positively charged ion, a bonding results in losing an electron and has a + charge, ex. K+ potassium
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anion
negative charge due to gaining an electron in bonding, ex. F- fluoride
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ionic bond
ongoing, close association between ions of opposite charges, ex. table salt
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How does an EKG produce waves
water inside the body breaks the ionic bond of electrolytes such as salts, these dissolved ions produce electrical charges w/in the body and the ecg reads these charges
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covalent bond
sharing of electrons w/in molecules to stabilize, this bond is stronger than ionic bonds
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polar molecule
molecule that contains regions that have opposite electrical charges, this occurs when atoms in a covalent bond share electrons unequally, ex. water
because of the unbalance, water molecules have a stronger attraction to each other to balance each other
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hydrogen bond
weakly positive hydrogen atom already bonded to one electronegative atom (ex. oxygen in water molecule) is attracted to another electronegative atom from another molecule. ex. water molecules hydrogen bonding together
**a hydrogen bond will always include a hydrogen that is already apart of a polar molecule**
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why is water considered a universal solvent
because of the attraction of water molecules to other types of charged ions,
it dissolves/dissociates ionic bonds
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where is potential energy stored in the human body
between atoms & molecules
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what is chemical energy
potential energy stored in chemical bonds, released when bonds are broken
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exergonic
chem reactions that release more energy than they absorb, ex. food in an energy bar eaten
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endergonic
chem reactions that absorb more energy than they release, reactions require energy input & resulting molecule stores not only chem energy in original components but also the energy that fueled reaction
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mechanical energy
stored in machines, engines, human body, powers movement of matter, ex. picking up a brick and putting it into a wall, your muscles are the mechanical energy
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radiant energy
energy emitted & transmitted as waves rather than matter. full spectrum is electromagnetic spectrum. ex. body uses ultraviolet energy of sunlight into vitamin D in skin cells
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electrical energy
supplied by electrolytes in cells & body fluids, contribute to voltage changes that transmit impulses in nerve & muscle cells
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what kind of bonds does water have
covalent & hydrogen
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number of protons equals the number of what (without + or - charge)
electrons , they are attracted to each other
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what are the four major elements of the body
oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen
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why are chemical bonds important to the human body
homeostasis, signaling, energy production
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Functions of water in the body
temp regulation, move solutes to cells, digestion, helps lungs expand & recoil, cushions joints
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why is water hydrophilic (water-loving)
because water is polar, has + & - regions, this means it can easily dissolve ionic & polar covalent compounds
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hydrophobic
"water-fearing", nonpolar molecules can not dissolve in water
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solution consists of what
solvent & solutes, they make a homogeneous mixture, equally distributed even if the ratio is not, ex. sugar in water
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colloid
mixture like a heavy solution, solute particles consist of tiny clumps of molecules large enough to make liquid mixture opaque, ex. milk & cream
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Suspension
liquid mixture which heavier substance is suspended temp in liquid but settles out eventually
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sedimentation
separation of particles form suspension, ex. sedimentation test of blood, if RBC clump together too fast it could indicate a disease
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isotonic solution
the same amount of solutes & solvents
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hypertonic solutions
more solutes than solvents
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hypotonic solutions
fewer solutes compared to solvents
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osmoregulation
contrl of fluid balance & composition in body
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dehydration synthesis (anabolism or condensation reaction)
chem reaction, 1 reactant gives up an atom of hydrogen & another reactant gives up a hydroxyl group (OH) in synthesis of new product
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hydrolysis (catabolism)
water disrupts a compound, breaks bond into OH and O & then bonds to 2 separate monomers
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Salts
formed when ions form ionic bonds, 1 atom gives up electrons & becomes positively charged & the other one takes electrons & becomes negatively chrgd.
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what is referenced by a "heat sink"
something that absorbs body heat w/out a significant change in temp
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what happens to the solid particles that are present in a suspension
they settle out over time
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tonicity
refers to concentration of solutes in solution outside of the cell & effects on cellular fluid volume
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acid
releases hydrogen ions into solution, strong acids ionize completely (loose all H+) ex. HCl (stomach acid) ex. weak acid; vinegar
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bases
release hydroxyl (OH-) ions into solution or accepts H+ to form water. Strong bases release all hydroxyls. weak acid; bicarbonate (in digestive tract to negate HCl)
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pH scale
0-6 acid, 7 neutral, 8-14 basic. Increments of 10X when moving up or down scale. Ex, a pH of 4 is 10X more acidic than a pH of 5. Water= pH 7
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red litmus paper changes to blue for which
alkalines
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blue litmus paper changes to red for
acidic
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pH of human blood
7.35-7.45, slightly basic
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what are some causes of acidosis
ineffective breathing especially ability to exhale fully, metabolic problems that reduce level of buffers (too much diarrhea, too much bicarbonate can be lost from the body allowing a back up), poorly managed diabetes (build up of ketones lead to DKA)
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what causes alkalosis
respiratory disorders (CO2 levels fall too low), aspirin OD, shock, anxiety, metabolic reasons (prolonged severe vomiting, loss of chloride & hydrogen), certain meds (diuretics, antacids)
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buffer
solution of a weak acid & conjugate base
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organic compounds
have a carbon core w/4 electrons in valence shell, share electrons via covalent bonds, usually C-C to create long carbon chains, but they can share w other elements one of which will always be Hydrogen
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functional group
group of atoms linked by strong covalent bonds & function as single unit
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what are the 5 most important functional groups in physiology
hydroxyl, carboxyl, amino, methyl, phosphate
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how do monomers form polymers
dehydration synthesis, release of water molecule
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hydrated carbon
carbohydrate (carbon, hydrogen, oxygen)
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saccharides
carbohydrates
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monosaccharide & the 5 types
monomer of carbs; glucose, fructose, galactose, ribose, deoxyribose
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disaccharide
pair of monosaccharides; formed by dehydration synthesis
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glycosidic bond
links monosaccharides to form disaccharide
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name the 3 disaccharides
sucrose (table sugar), lactose (milk sugar), maltose (malt sugar)
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can your body digest disaccharides?
no it needs to go through hydrolysis in your digestive tract
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polysaccharides
unlimited monosaccharide chains
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starches
polymers of glucose, long chains called amylose/branched chains called amylopectin, stored in plant based food
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glycogen
polymer of glucose, stored in tissues of animals (muscles/liver)
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cellulose
polysaccharide; primary component of cell wall of green plants, this is fiber, not digestible
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What ATP composed of
ribose sugar, adenine base, 3 phosphate groups, produced when glucose is broken down
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can carb molecules bind w/ other macros?
yes to form glycoproteins & glycolipids; membrane of cells
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lipids composed of mostly
hydrocarbons
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why are all hydrocarbons hydrophobic
because they are nonpolar, lipids form emulsions in water (they do not mix)
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trigylceride
most common dietary lipid groups aka fat; form via dehydration synthesis
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what molecules make a triglyceride compound
glycerol backbone & 3 fatty acid chains
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saturated fatty acids
no double carbon bond, contain max # of hydrogen atoms, ex. butter & lard & body fat
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monounsaturated/polyunsaturated fatty acids
fatty acids w/ 1 double carbon bond, liquid at room temp, ex. plant oils
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what are the benefits of triglycerides on the body
provides energy while sleeping, low/slow activities (hiking, gardening), absorption & transport of vitamins A, D, E, K, stored body fat protects & cushions bodies bones & organs
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lipoproteins
compounds in which hydrophobic triglycerides packaged in protein envelopes for transport in body fluids
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phospholipid
bond between glycerol component of a lipid & phosphorous molecule
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phospholipids head & tail qualities
head; polar, hydrophilic. tail; neutral fatty acid, hydrophobic
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steroid
aka sterol, most commonly synthesized n body is cholesterol (made in liver); hydrophobic (polar head though),
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why is cholesterol important
emulsify dietary fat (bile), building block of many hormones, in cell membrane/help regulate substances in and out of cell membrane
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prostaglandins
help regulate BP/inflammation, reduce risk of heart disease; derived from unsaturated fatty acids; sensitize nerves to pain (NSAIDA counteract this effect)
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protein
composed of amino acids linked by peptide bonds
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where are proteins in the body
keratin in epidermis, collagen in dermis, meninges brain & spinal cord, digestive enzymes in digestive tract, antibodies, neurotransmitters, peptide based hormones
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How many amino acids are there
20
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what do all amino acids consist of
hydrogen atom, alkaline amino acid NH2, acidic carboxyl COOH, variable group
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how do amino acids join
dehydration synthesis, form protein polymers aka peptide bond
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what kind of bond is a peptide bond
covalent bond
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what is a polypeptide
an amino acid chain of fewer than 100 amino acids
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how do we determine a protein's shape
sequence of amino acid aka primary structure
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what is the most common secondary structure
spiral alpha-helix, hydrogen bonds help
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what is a disulfide bond
covalent bond between sulfur atoms in a polypeptide
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tertiary structure
secondary structure of proteins, 3D shape
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what is an example of four tertiary polypeptides
hemoglobin
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what is denaturation of proteins
extreme heat, acids, bases will change structure of molecule through physical & chemical means, ex. curdling of milk w/acidic lemon juice present
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what is an example of a globe and slender shaped protein
globe: hemoglobin, rod: muscle tissue
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substrate
beginning of enzymatic reaction, they bind to enzymes, exactly matched enzyme for each substrate
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active sites
where the substrate binds to an enzyme
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nucleotide
class of organic compounds composed of 3 subunits : 1 or more phosphate group, a pentose sugar (deoxyribose, ribose), nitrogen-containing base (adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine, uracil)
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nucleic acids
DNA/RNA made of nucleotides
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What does DNA contain
deoxyribose, contain 1 phosphate & 1 nitrogen containing base, choose 1 for base: adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine
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RNA contains
ribose, phosphate & nitrogen base, 1 choice for base: adenine, cytosine, guanine, uracil
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purines
nitrogen containing base adenine & guanine, double ring structure w/ multiple nitrogen atoms
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pyrimidines
baes cytosin, thymine, uracil, nitrogen containing base w single ring structure
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intracellular fluid
inside of cell, phosphate groups are polar & hydrophilic so they are attracted to water inside the intracellular fluid
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extracellular fluid
phosphate groups also attracted to this
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interstitial fluid
extracellular fluid not contained w/in blood vessels
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what makes up the cell membrane
primarily back to back phospholipids, amino acids, cholesterol
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integral protein
protein embedded in membrane
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channel protein
ex of integral protein that selectively allows particular materials (ions) to pass in or out
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recognition
ex of integral protein, marks cells identity so it is recognized by other cells
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receptor
recognition protein that binds to other moleculesl
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ligand
ex of receptor, ex. nerve cells that bind neurotransmitters
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peripheral proteins
inner/outer surface of lipid bilayer perform specific function
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what ions and nutrients can pass through the cell wall
Ca++, Na+, K+, CL-; sugars, fatty acids, amino acids; CO2
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concentration gradient
difference in the concentration of a substance across a space; will go more to less until equal, "moving down con. gradient"
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diffusion
movement of particles from high con to low con, passive transport ex. O2 & CO2 & water
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facilitated diffusion
diffusion process used for substances that cannot cross lipid bilayer due to size/charge, ex. glucose into cell (lrg & polar) can only pass w/ glucose transporter
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filtration
uses hydrostatic pressure gradient pushes fluid from high pressure to low pressure, ex. circulatory system uses filtration to move plasma & substances across endothelial lining of capillaries & tissues
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active transport
requires ATP to move substance against concentration gradient, ex. proteins that serve as pumps; sodium-postassium pump (Na+ in K+ out)
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nuclear envelope
nucleus membrane, inside is nucleoplasm w/solutes
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nucleolus
inside nucleus, makes RNA for ribosomes
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chromatin
made of DNA & protein
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histone protein
DNA wrapped around inside chromatin threads
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nucleosome
single, wrapped DNA-histone complex
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chromosome
DNA & protein; condensed form of chromatin
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what type of cells do not divide
nerve cells, skeletal muscle fibers, cardiac muscle cells
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DNA ladder composed of
alternating sugar & phosphate groups; not identical
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adenine binds w
thymine
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cytosine binds w
guanine
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DNA replication (copying of DNA) occurs before
cell division
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Stage 1 of DNA replications
initiation: 2 complementary strands are separated; helicase (special enzymes) untwist & separate into 2 strands
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semiconservative
describes DNA replication; 1 strand existing, 1 strand new
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stage 2 DNA replication
elongation; each strand becomes template for new strand; DNA polymerase (enzyme that adds free nucleotides) matches correct base to create new strand
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stage 3 DNA replication
termination; 2 original strands are bound to their own complementary strand
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sister chromatid
each copy of chromosome; physically bound to the other copy
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centromere
structure that attaches one sister chromatid to another (92 chromatids) in cell
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interphase
cell is not dividing during this phase
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mitosis
division of genetic material during 5 different phases; cell nucleus breaks down & 2 nuclei form
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cytokinesis
divides cytoplasm into 2 cells
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mitotic phase
cell undergoes 2 processes; 1. completes mitosis (nucleus divided). 2. cytokinesis
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prophase
loosely packed chromatin coils & condenses into chromosomes (forms sister chromatids)
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centrosome
pair of centrioles
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mitotic spindle
composed of centrosomes & emerging microtubules
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prometaphase
transition between prophase and metaphase; microtubules enter nuclear area from mitotic spindle
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metaphase
2nd stage of mitosis; sister chromatids w/attached microtubules
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anaphase
3rd stage of mitosis; pairs of sister chromatids are separated
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telophase
final stage of mitosis; formation of 2 new daughter nuclei
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cleavage furrow
contractile band made up of microfilaments that form around the midline of the cell during cytokinesis
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transcription factore
class of proteins that bind to specific genes on DNA molecule & promote/inhibit transcription
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nitrogenous bases of nucleic acids are joined together by what bond
hydrogen
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transcription
mRNA strand created from nucleotides matching DNA template
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translation
polypeptide chain is created from tRNAs matching anticodons to mRNA codons
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why are enzymes (proteins) important to the cell
speeds up biochemical reactions
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gene
functional segment of DNA that provides genetic info necessary to build protein
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gene expression
transforms info coded in gene to final gene product; dictates structure & function of cell
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triplet
section of 3 DNA bases in row that codes specific amino acid
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messenger RNA
single stranded nucleic acid carries copy of genetic code for single gene out of nucleus & into cytoplasm to produce proteins
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what is the difference between DNA & RNA
RNA is single stranded, ribose sugar in RNA contains additional oxygen atom, RNA contains base uracil instead of thymine
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transcription
synthesis of strand of mRNA that is complementary to gene of interest
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codon
3 base sequence of mRNA & directly encode amino acids
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promoter
nucleotides that trigger transcription (stage 1; initiation)
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stage 2 of protein transcription
elongation; RNA polymerase unwinds DNA & aligns correct nucleic acid w/ complementary base on DNA
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stage 3 of protein transcription
polymerase reaches end of gene & codes "stop" signal
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ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
this + proteins will compose structure of ribosome
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transfer RNA (tRNA)
ferries appropriate amino acid to ribosome, builds polypeptide
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polyribosome
string of ribosomes translating single mRNA strand
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