Chapter 11- Cognition

Question 1

Sensory memory

Answer 1

The gateway between perception and memory; iconic or echoic; George Sperling and partial report

Question 2

Iconic

Answer 2

Visual; sensory memory

Question 3

Echoic

Answer 3

Auditory; sensory memory

Question 4

George Sperling

Answer 4

Experimented on memory and partial report; using rows and columns of letters and asking participants to repeat them; research shows iconic memory or short-term visual memory that suggests that the capacity for iconic memory is quite large, but the duration is incredibly short, and the info is not easily manipuable

Question 5

Short-term memory

Answer 5

Holds info for a few seconds up to about a minute; George Miller; can hold about seven items plus or minus two; maintained by rehearsal

Question 6

George Miller

Answer 6

Found that info stored in short-term memory is primarily acoustically coded, despite the nature of the original source

Question 7

Rehearsal

Answer 7

Maintenance rehearsal: simple repetition to keep an item in the short-term memory until it can be used; elaborative rehearsal: involves organization and understanding of the info that has been encoded in order to transfer the info to the long-term memory

Question 8

Encoded

Answer 8

Items in the short-term memory being stored and able to be recalled later into the long-term memory

Question 9

Decay

Answer 9

Items in the Short term memory exiting by the passage of time

Question 10

Interference

Answer 10

Items in short-term memory exiting by being displaced by new info; retroactive interference: old info displaced by new info

Question 11

Sequential storage

Answer 11

Our tendency to remember the first few (primacy) and the last few (recency) items in a list better than the ones in the middle; overall effect called serial position effect

Question 12

Chunking

Answer 12

Grouping items of info into units

Question 13

Priming

Answer 13

Memory concerned with perceptual indent officiating of words and objects; activating particular representation before carrying it an action or task; ex. Hearing the word yellow and immediately thinking of a banana

Question 14

Prospective

Answer 14

Remembering to remember

Question 15

Conditioning

Answer 15

Paring two stimuli to give the same response

Question 16

Long-term memory

Answer 16

The repository for all of our lasting memories and knowledge; capable of permanent retention for the rest of our live; primarily semantically encoded

Question 17

Episodic memory

Answer 17

Kind of long-term memory storage; memory for events that we ourselves have experienced

Question 18

Semantic memory

Answer 18

Kind of storage for long-term memory; comprises facts, figures, and general world knowledge

Question 19

Procedural memory

Answer 19

Kind of long-term memory storage; consisting of skills and abilities

Question 20

Declarative (explicit) memory

Answer 20

LTM; a memory a person can consciously consider and retrieve, such as episodic and semantic memory

Question 21

Non-declarative (implicit) memory

Answer 21

LTM; beyond conscious consideration and would include procedural memory, priming, and classical conditioning

Question 22

State-dependent memory

Answer 22

How we call recall items in long-term memory; principle states that info is more likely to be recalled if the attempt to retrieve it occurs in a situation similar to the situation in which it was encoded

Question 23

Working memory

Answer 23

Would fall between the sensory registry and short-term memory, and it can last up to 30 seconds before decaying or being transferred into either short- or long-term memory

Question 24

Modal model

Answer 24

Memory is divided into three separate storage areas: sensory, short-term, and long-term

Question 25

Flashbulb memory

Answer 25

LTM; a very deep, vivid memory in the form of a visual image with a particular emotionally arousing event

Question 26

Reconstruction

Answer 26

Occurs when we fit together pieces of an event that seems likely

Question 27

Source amnesia

Answer 27

One likely cause of memory reconstruction; we attribute the event to a different source than it actually came from

Question 28

Framing

Answer 28

Elizabeth Lofus; demonstrated that repeated suggestions and misleading questions can create false memories

Question 29

Proactive interference

Answer 29

When previously memorized information interferes with the ability to learn and memorize new information

Question 30

Language key features

Answer 30

1. Language is arbitrary 2. Language has structure 3. Language has multiplicity of structure 4. Language is productive 5. Language is dynamic

Question 31

Phonemes

Answer 31

The smallest units of speech in a given language that are still distinct in sound from each other

Question 32

Morphemes

Answer 32

Formed by combined phonemes; the smallest semantically meaningful parts of language

Question 33

Grammar

Answer 33

The set of rules by which language is constructed

Question 34

Syntax

Answer 34

The set o rules used in the arrangement of morphemes into meaningful sentences

Question 35

Semantics

Answer 35

Word meaning or word choice

Question 36

Prosody

Answer 36

The rhythm, stress, and intonation of speech

Question 37

Holophrases

Answer 37

Single terms that are applied by the infant to broad categories of things

Question 38

Overextension

Answer 38

Results from the infant not knowing enough words to express something fully

Question 39

Underextension

Answer 39

When a child thinks that his or her mama is the only mama

Question 40

Telegraphic speech

Answer 40

Two or three word groups; ex "mommy food"

Question 41

Overgeneralization

Answer 41

Errors in which the rules of language are overextended, such as saying, "I goed to the store"

Question 42

Noam Chonsky

Answer 42

Postulated a system for the organization of language based on the concept of what he referred to as transformational grammar

Question 43

Transformational grammar

Answer 43

Differentiates between: surface structure of language: the superficial way in which the words are arranged in a text or in speech; deep structure of language: the underlying meaning of words

Question 44

Language acquisition device

Answer 44

Facilitates the acquisition of language in children, and a critical period for the learning of language

Question 45

B.F. Skinner

Answer 45

A noted behaviorist; countered Chomsky's argument for language acquisition; explored the idea of the "language acquisition support system" which is the language-rich or language-poor environment the child is exposed to while growing up

Question 46

Benjamin Lee Whorf

Answer 46

In collaboration with Edward Sapir, proposed a theory of linguistic relativity, according to which speakers of different languages develop different cognitive systems as a result of their differences in language

Question 47

Concept

Answer 47

A way of grouping or classifying the world around us

Question 48

Typicality

Answer 48

The degree to which an object fits the average

Question 49

Prototype

Answer 49

Ex. The image of a chair that pops into our head when we hear the word "chair"

Question 50

Subordinate concept

Answer 50

Very broad and encompasses a large of items, such as the concept of food

Question 51

Basic concept

Answer 51

Smaller and more specific; ex. Bread

Question 52

Subordinate concept

Answer 52

Even smaller and more specific; rye bread

Question 53

Cognition

Answer 53

Encompasses the mental processes involved in acquiring, organizing, remembering, using, and constructing knowledge

Question 54

Reasoning

Answer 54

The drawing of conclusions from evidence

Question 55

Deductive reasoning

Answer 55

The process of drawing logical conclusions from general statements

Question 56

Syllogisms

Answer 56

Deductive conclusions drawn from two premises

Question 57

Inductive reasoning

Answer 57

The process of drawing general inferences from specific observations

Question 58

Problem-solving

Answer 58

Involves the removal of one or more impediments to the finding of a solution in a situation

Question 59

Divergent thinking

Answer 59

The process we use if many correct answers are possible; ex brainstorming

Question 60

Convergent thinking

Answer 60

Process we use if the problem can be solved only by one answer; requires narrowing of the many choices available

Question 61

Heuristics

Answer 61

Intuitive rules of thumb that may or may not be used in a given situation; used when solving well structured problems

Question 62

Availability heuristics

Answer 62

Means that the rule of thumb is judged by what events come readily to mind

Question 63

Representativeness heiristic

Answer 63

Can lead to incorrect conclusions; we judge objects and events interns of how closely they match the prototype of that object or event

Question 64

Algorithms

Answer 64

Contrasts with heuristics; systematic, mechanical approaches that guarantee an eventual answer to a problem

Question 65

Insight

Answer 65

The sudden understanding of a problem or a potential strategy for solving a problem that usually involves conceptualizing the problem in a new way

Question 66

Mental set

Answer 66

Fixed frame of mind, that we use when approaching the problems; ex. Functional fixedness: the tendency to assume that a given item is only useful for the task for which it was designed

Question 67

Confirmation bias

Answer 67

The search for information that supports a particular view, also hinders problem-solving by distorting objectivity

Question 68

Hindsight bias

Answer 68

The tendency after the fact to think you knew what the outcome would be

Question 69

Belief perseverance

Answer 69

Affects problem-solving; a person only sees the evidence that supports a particular position, despite evidence presented to the contrary

Question 70

Creativity

Answer 70

Defined as the process of producing something novel yet worthwhile

Question 71

Wolfgang Kohler

Answer 71

Had a chimp in a cage with two sticks; the novel approach of combining the two sticks was presumably the result of insight