Chapter 2 flashcards
(45 cards)
Four main goals of psychology
Describe
* By simply describing thoughts and behavior, we can understand them better
Explain
* Conducting research helps explain why people think and behave the way they do
Predict
* Once we understand human behavior and thought, we can make predictions about how they will behave in the future
Change
* Psychology makes a difference in the world from treatment for mental health, changing habits, to educating children - it’s everywhere
Hindsight bias: I knew it all along phenomenon
Happens when, after an event has occurred, we believe we predicted it beforehand. This bias makes outcomes seem obvious and inevitable in retrospect, even if we had no way of knowing what would happen.
Example: After a sports game, you might think, “I knew our team would win!” even if you had doubts before the game.
Why It’s Misleading: It makes us overestimate our ability to predict events and blinds us to the reality of uncertainty.
Overconfidence: Too Much Faith in Our Own Judgment
Occurs when we overestimate the accuracy of our knowledge and judgments. It’s like wearing rose-colored glasses that make our abilities and decisions seem better than they actually are.
Example: You might be certain you aced an exam, only to find out you made several mistakes.
Why It’s Misleading: It leads to poor decision-making because we don’t seek out additional information or consider other viewpoints.
Confirmation Bias: Seeing Only What We Want to See
The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms our preexisting beliefs or opinions. Instead of objectively evaluating all evidence, we give more weight to information that supports what we already think and discount evidence that contradicts our views.
Example: If you strongly support a political party, you’re more likely to favor news outlets and opinions that align with your views and ignore those that don’t, reinforcing your existing beliefs.
Why It’s Misleading: It skews our perception of reality, leads to poor decision-making, and can cause polarization by creating echo chambers where opposing viewpoints are disregarded.
What is a Theory?
A theory in psychology is like a roadmap that helps us organize our observations and make predictions about behavior. It’s a structured explanation based on principles that guide research and understanding.
The Importance of Hypotheses
A hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction derived from a theory. It’s crucial because it allows psychologists to conduct research that either supports or challenges the theory.
Example: “Teenagers who spend more than three hours a day on social media will report higher levels of anxiety and depression compared to those who spend less than one hour a day.”
Why It’s Important: It guides research by providing a clear statement to be tested.
Falsifiable: Can It Be Proven Wrong?
A falsifiable hypothesis is one that can be disproven through evidence.
Example: “All swans are white” is falsifiable because finding one black swan disproves it.
Why It’s Important: It ensures that hypotheses can be tested and potentially refuted.
Operational Definition: Making It Measurable
An operational definition specifies how a concept is measured or manipulated in a study.
Example: Defining “stress” as “cortisol levels in saliva.”
Why It’s Important: It allows for precise measurement and replication.
Replication: Testing Reliability
Replication is the process of repeating a study to see if the same results can be obtained.
Example: Conducting the same experiment on memory recall to verify findings.
Why It’s Important: It confirms the reliability and validity of research findings.
Peer Reviewers: The Gatekeepers of Quality
Peer reviewers are experts who evaluate the quality and validity of research before it gets published. They ensure that the research methods are sound and the conclusions are reliable.
Example: Before a study on new therapy techniques is published, peer reviewers critique the methods and findings.
Why It’s Important: It maintains the integrity and accuracy of scientific literature.
Non- experimental research methods
Research that observes and describes behavior without manipulation variables
Case study: In- depth analysis
A case study involves an in-depth investigation of a single individual or group.
Example: Studying a patient with a rare psychological disorder.
Why It’s Important: It provides detailed insights but may not be generalizable.
Correlational Study: Examining Relationships
A correlational study examines the relationship between two or more variables.
Example: Investigating the relationship between hours of sleep and academic performance.
Why It’s Important: Helps identify associations and make predictions but does not imply causation.
Meta- analysis
Statistical analysis of multiple studies on the same topic
Naturalistic observation
Observing behavior in its natural setting
Limitations of non- experimental research
Cannot establish cause and effect relationships
Advantages and disadvantages of a case study
Advantages:
* Provides detailed, rich qualitative data.
* Useful for studying rare or unique phenomena.
* Can generate new hypotheses for further research.
Disadvantages:
* Results may not be generalizable to the broader population.
* Can be time-consuming and resource-intensive.
* Subject to researcher bias in interpretation.
Correlation
Correlation helps predict
* I.E. low self esteem correlates (and therefore, predicts) depression
Does not imply cause and effect
* cannot say that low self esteem is the only cause for depression
Correlational study advantages and disadvantages
Advantages:
* Can study variables that cannot be manipulated experimentally.
* Can be conducted in natural settings.
* Can provide insights into potential causal relationships.
Disadvantages:
* Cannot establish cause-and-effect relationships. (Correlation does not equal causation)
* Subject to the third-variable problem (confounding variables).
Positive Correlation
Two sets of scores rise and fall together
Behave in the same way! Increase/ increase or decrease/ decrease
- I.E. less stress you drink less
- I.E. study less, scores go down
- I.E. study more, scores go up
Negative correlation
Relate inversely
* One goes up and the other goes down
- I.E. amount of exercise goes up, weight goes down
Correlation coefficient
- helps us figure out how closely two things vary together (correlate)
ex.
- how well do intelligence test scores predict achievement
- how well does low self esteem predict depression
How do we see correlation?
Scatterplots
- a graphed group (or cluster) of dots - shows patterns of correlation
- each dot represents the values of the two variables
- the slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables
- the amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation)
Illusory correlation
- perceived non-existent correlation
- a random coincidence
- when we notice
random coincidences,
we may forget that
they are random and
instead see them as
correlated, thus we
deceive ourselves by
seeing what is not
really there
Ex.
* rainy, cold
weather= catch a
cold
- when we notice
