Unit 4.6 and 4.7

Question 1

Drive reduction theory

Answer 1

proposed by Clark Hull, suggests that motivation arises from physiological needs that create an aroused state, or drive, which pushes an organism to reduce that need and achieve homeostasis.
According to this theory, behaviors are performed to satisfy these needs and restore balance. When you’re hungry, the drive for food motivates you to seek out and consume food, thereby reducing the hunger and restoring balance.

Question 2

Homeostasis

Answer 2

the bodys innate tendency to maintain a stable internal state and equilibrium, including both physiological and psychological balance

Question 3

Arousal theory (optimal arousal)

Answer 3

posits that people are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal, which varies from person to person. Too little arousal leads to boredom, while too much arousal leads to stress. Optimal arousal levels differ depending on the individual and the situation.
A person might go skydiving to achieve high arousal levels or practice meditation to reduce arousal and stress.

Optimal arousal: the level of mental stimulation where physical performance, learning or temporary feelings of well-being are maximized

Question 4

Yerkes-Dodson law

Answer 4

proposes a relationship between arousal levels and performance, suggesting that moderate levels of arousal lead to optimal performance on tasks. According to this law, both very high and very low levels of arousal can impair performance. In sports, athletes need to achieve an optimal level of arousal to perform well.
example, a tennis player may perform best with moderate arousal during a match, enabling quick reflexes and strategic thinking. Too much arousal (e.g., anxiety) or too little (e.g., lack of focus) can lead to errors and reduced performance.

Question 5

Self-determination theory

Answer 5

developed by Edward Deci and Richard Ryan, focuses on intrinsic motivation and the human need for autonomy, competence, and relatedness.
According to SDT, when these needs are met, people are more likely to be intrinsically motivated and experience well-being. In a workplace setting, employees are more motivated and productive when they feel they have control over their work (autonomy), believe they are skilled at their tasks (competence), and feel connected to their colleagues (relatedness).

Question 6

Intrinsic motivation

Answer 6

refers to engaging in a behavior because it is inherently rewarding, rather than for some separable consequence.
Activities are pursued for their own sake and for the pleasure and satisfaction derived from participation. Studying a subject out of curiosity and a desire to understand, without concern for grades or rewards.

Question 7

Extrinsic motivation

Answer 7

involves engaging in an activity to earn external rewards or avoid punishment. These rewards can include praise, money, grades, or social approval.
example, Participating in sports or contests to win medals or gain recognition.

Question 8

Incentive theory

Answer 8

behavior is primarily driven by external rewards and punishments, acting as motivators for actions

Question 9

Instincts

Answer 9

proposes that behaviors are driven by innate biological instincts that are evolutionarily programmed. These instincts are automatic and unlearned responses to specific stimuli. This theory suggests that certain behaviors, such as mating or parental care, are hardwired and essential for survival and reproduction. It highlights the role of inherited traits in motivating behavior.

Question 10

Lewin’s motivational conflicts theory

Answer 10

psychological conflicts are divided
into three types: (1) approach-approach conflict (an individual presented with two desirable
alternatives), (2) avoidance-avoidance conflict (an individual presented with two undesirable
alternatives), and (3) approach-avoidance conflict (an individual presented with two choices, desirable
and undesirable alternatives at the same time).

Question 11

Approach-approach theory

Answer 11

occurs when an individual must choose between two equally attractive options.
Example: Choosing between two exciting job offers can create an approach-approach conflict.

Question 12

Approach-avoidance theory

Answer 12

occurs when a single choice has both positive and negative aspects.
Example: Deciding whether to take a high-paying job that requires moving to a less desirable location involves approach-avoidance conflict.

Question 13

Avoidance-avoidance

Answer 13

occurs when an individual must choose between two equally unattractive options.
Example: Deciding between doing a disliked chore or facing the consequences of not doing it represents an avoidance-avoidance conflict.

Question 14

Sensation seeking (experience, thrill adventure, disinhibition, boredom, susceptibility)

Answer 14

refers to the tendency to seek out novel and intense experiences. Individuals with high sensation-seeking traits are motivated by the desire for varied, complex, and stimulating experiences.

Question 15

Experience seeking

Answer 15

is a motivational tendency characterized by a desire for new sensations and experiences, even if they involve risk or uncertainty. Individuals high in experience seeking are often curious, adventurous, and open to exploring novel activities or environments.

Question 16

Thrill or adventure seeking

Answer 16

is a motivational trait characterized by a strong desire for intense and exciting experiences, often involving physical risks or challenges.
Individuals with high thrill-seeking tendencies are motivated by the adrenaline rush and excitement associated with activities like skydiving, mountain climbing, or racing.
may participate in extreme sports like bungee jumping or skydiving to satisfy their need for high arousal and excitement.

Question 17

Disinhibition

Answer 17

refers to a motivational state where individuals seek to escape from social norms, constraints, or inhibitions.
It involves a desire for freedom from conventional rules and restraints, often leading to impulsive or unrestrained behavior.

Question 18

Boredom susceptibility

Answer 18

refers to the tendency to experience dissatisfaction or restlessness when not engaged in stimulating activities.
Individuals high in boredom susceptibility may seek constant stimulation and struggle with maintaining attention during repetitive or monotonous tasks.

Question 19

Eating motivation

Answer 19

Biological components and external factors

Question 20

Biological components

Answer 20

hunger signals from the hypothalamus regulate appetite, triggering the desire to eat when energy levels are low
Hormones such as ghrelin stimulate hunger, signaling the need for food intake, while leptin suppresses appetite after eating, signaling satiety

Question 21

Ghrelin

Answer 21

stimulates hunger, signaling the need for food intake

Question 22

Leptin

Answer 22

suppresses appetite after eating, signaling satiety

Question 23

Hypothalamus

Answer 23

hunger signals from the hypothalamus regulate appetite, triggering the desire to eat when energy levels are low

Question 24

Pituitary gland

Answer 24

stimulates ghrelin (“hunger hormone”)

Question 25

External factors motivating hunger (presence of food, time of day, social gatherings)

Answer 25

Social gatherings, advertisements, and food accessibility influence eating behavior. example, the smell of food at a social event can stimulate appetite, leading people to eat more than they might alone.

Question 26

Internal/external factors affecting emotion

Answer 26

is a complex psychological process that is distinguished from reasoning or knowledge. Emotions reflect internal and external factors affecting an individual. Early 20th century psychological theories of emotion parsed the distinction between the physiological and cognitive experiences of emotion. Some theories proposed that the physiological and cognitive experiences occurred in succession while others proposed that they occurred simultaneously. Other theories emphasize that the cognitive label is required to experience an emotion. The facial-feedback hypothesis suggests that the experience of emotion is influenced by facial expressions, which supports theories that propose the physiological experience of emotion precedes the cognitive appraisal, and research testing this hypothesis has produced mixed results.

Question 27

Physiological experience of emotion

Answer 27

physiological responses precede and cause emotional feelings (james lange) physiological arousal and emotional experience occur simultaneously (cannon bard)

Question 28

Cognitive experience

Answer 28

two factor theory: emotions are a result of both physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation of that arousal Cognitive appraisal theory: our appraisal of a situation plays a crucial role in our emotional experience ex. if you see a snake and appraise it as a threat, you might experience fear. If you appraise it as harmless, you may experience curiosity

Question 29

Cognitive label

Answer 29

refers to the mental interpretation or labeling of our physiological arousal in relation to the situation we are in

Question 30

Facial-feedback hypothesis

Answer 30

suggests that facial expressions not only reflect emotional experiences but also influence them. According to this theory, facial muscles send signals to the brain, which then interprets these signals as emotions. Example, smiling can induce feelings of happiness, while frowning may lead to feelings of sadness or displeasure. During stressful situations, consciously adopting a relaxed facial expression (like smiling softly) can help reduce feelings of anxiety or tension, demonstrating the influence of facial feedback on emotional regulation.

Question 31

Facial expressions

Question 32

Cognitive apprasial

Question 33

Broaden-and-build theory of emotion

Answer 33

proposes that positive emotions broaden an individual's momentary thought-action repertoire, enhancing their ability to cope with stressful situations and fostering long-term psychological resilience. Unlike negative emotions, which narrow one's focus to specific actions, positive emotions broaden awareness and cognition. Engaging in hobbies or activities that bring joy (e.g., playing music, gardening) not only enhances immediate feelings of happiness but also builds skills and networks that promote long-term mental health and adaptive coping strategies.

Question 34

Negative emotions

Question 35

Emotions as universally common

Answer 35

Six primary emotions anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise

Question 36

Anger

Question 37

Disgust

Question 38

Sadness

Question 39

Happiness

Question 40

Surprise

Question 41

Fear

Question 42

Universality of emotions (Ekman)

Question 43

Display rules

Answer 43

cultural and social guidelines that shape how individuals manage and express emotions through facial expressions, body language, and verbal communication these rules vary across cultures and subcultures, influencing what emotions are considered appropriate to express in various situations ex. suppressing anger in a formal setting, smiling even when feeling upset, or showing a more exaggerated emotional expression in a casual environment display rules help individuals navigate social interactions, maintain social order, and ensure that emotions are expressed appropriately in different contexts

Question 44

Elicitors for emotional expression

Answer 44

stimuli, events or experiences that trigger emotional responses ex. a negative review, a conflict with a friend, or a sudden loud noise could all act as elicitors for emotions like sadness, anger, or fear while basic emotions may be universal, the specific events that elicit them can be learned through cultural and social experiences elicitors can also interact with display rules ex. a negative review might trigger sadness, but the way that sadness is expressed would be influenced by the relevant display rules in a given cultural context