Unit 4

Question 1

Cross-sectional

Answer 1

a research design where data is collected from a diverse group of individuals at a single point in time, essentially taking a snapshot of a population to examine relationships between variables without following them over time; it’s often used to compare different age groups to study developmental trends.

Question 2

Longitudinal

Answer 2

a research design where the same group of participants are studied repeatedly over a long period of time, allowing researchers to observe changes and development within individuals as they age or experience different life events; essentially, it tracks the same subjects multiple times to examine how variables might evolve over time.

Question 3

Lifespan

Answer 3

the entire duration of an individual’s life from birth to death, encompassing all stages of development.

Question 4

Stability vs. Change

Answer 4

“stability” refers to the tendency for personality traits and behaviors to remain relatively consistent throughout a person’s life, while “change” refers to the potential for those traits and behaviors to modify or evolve over time, signifying a shift in someone’s psychological makeup.

Question 5

Nature vs. Nurture

Answer 5

Both nature (the genetic and/or biological factors that influence who we are) and nurture (the environmental and/or experiential factors that shape who we are) matter to human development.
For developmental psychology, the big takeaway is how they interact and contribute to development.

Question 6

Continuous vs. discontinuous (stages)

Answer 6

Continuous:
A gradual process
Discontinuous:
Distinct, defined stages

Stage Theory:
Model that people go through distinct phases of growth and follow a specific order from one stage to the next

Question 7

Teratogen

Answer 7

Teratogens are agents (like viruses or drugs) that can cause birth defects or developmental abnormalities in a developing embryo or fetus when it is exposed to it during pregnancy
The extent of damage depends on factors exposure, timing and genetic susceptibility

Question 8

Reflex-rooting

Answer 8

an involuntary, innate reflex in infants where they turn their head towards a touch on the cheek, opening their mouth in an attempt to find a source of food, like a mother’s breast, when stimulated on the cheek or corner of the mouth; essentially, it’s a baby’s natural instinct to search for nourishment when touched on the face.

Question 9

Visual cliff apparatus

Answer 9

a specially designed experimental setup used to test an infant’s depth perception, typically consisting of a transparent glass surface placed over a seemingly steep drop-off, creating the illusion of a cliff, while the infant is safely positioned on a solid surface; this apparatus allows researchers to observe if the infant will crawl over the apparent drop, indicating their ability to perceive depth.

Question 10

Critical or sensitive period

Answer 10

a specific window of time during development where an organism is particularly receptive to learning a specific skill or behavior,

Question 11

Adolescent growth spurt

Answer 11

a rapid increase in height and weight that occurs during puberty, a significant physical change experienced by adolescents as a result of hormonal changes, primarily driven by the surge of sex hormones like estrogen and testosterone; it is a key aspect of physical development during adolescence.

Question 12

Puberty

Answer 12

the stage of physical development where a person reaches sexual maturity, marked by the maturation of primary sexual characteristics (reproductive organs) and the emergence of secondary sexual characteristics (like breast development or facial hair), signifying the beginning of adolescence; essentially, it’s the physical transition from childhood to adulthood through the development of reproductive capabilities.

Question 13

Primary/secondary sex characteristics

Answer 13

Primary sex characteristics:
Include the gonads (ovaries in females, testes in males).
Directly involved in reproduction.
Present at birth.
Secondary sex characteristics:
Include physical traits like breast development, facial hair, deepened voice, and body hair distribution.
Develop during puberty due to hormonal changes.
Not directly involved in reproduction.

Question 14

Menarche

Answer 14

the first menstrual period a female experiences, marking the onset of puberty and signifying the biological capability to become pregnant

Question 15

Spermarche

Answer 15

the first ejaculation a male experiences, marking the onset of sperm production and considered a key milestone in male puberty, essentially the male equivalent of “menarche” (first menstrual period) in females

Question 16

Menopause

Answer 16

the natural stage in a woman’s life when her menstrual cycle permanently ceases due to declining hormone levels from the ovaries,

Question 17

Piaget

Answer 17

Piaget thinks that learning is independent

Question 18

Sensorimotor stage

Answer 18

0-2
Experience the world through our senses
Do NOT have object permanence until 6-8 months

Question 19

Object permanence

Answer 19

the understanding that an object continues to exist even when it cannot be directly perceived or seen, which is a key developmental milestone in early childhood, typically associated with Jean Piaget’s sensorimotor stage of cognitive development; essentially, it means a child knows an object is still there even if it’s hidden from sight.

Question 20

Conservation

Answer 20

a child’s cognitive ability to understand that a quantity (like mass or volume) remains the same even if its appearance changes,

Question 21

Reversibility

Answer 21

the cognitive ability to mentally “undo” an action or transformation

Question 22

Animism

Answer 22

the cognitive developmental concept where a young child believes that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities and are capable of actions

Question 23

Egocentrism

Answer 23

the tendency to perceive situations solely from one’s own perspective, essentially believing that others see the world exactly as you do, often characterized by difficulty understanding different viewpoints and focusing primarily on one’s own thoughts and feelings; this concept is primarily associated with Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, particularly in the preoperational stage where young children exhibit this behavior.

Question 24

Theory of mind

Answer 24

When children’s ability to take another’s perspective starts to develop

Question 25

Preoperational stage

Answer 25

2-7 Have object permanence Begin to use language to represent objects and ideas Egocentric: cannot look at the world through anyone’s but their own Do NOT understand concepts of conservation

Question 26

Concrete operational stage

Answer 26

7-11 can demonstrate concept of conservation Learn to think logically

Question 27

Formal operational stage

Answer 27

12-adulthood Abstract reasoning Manipulate objects in our minds without seeing them Hypothesis testing Trial and error Metacognition

Question 28

Vygotsky

Answer 28

Vygotsky thinks that learning is acquired through peer interaction emphasizes the social context of learning, where children acquire knowledge through interactions with others, particularly those with more expertise Scaffolding- children can step to higher levels of thinking Zone of proximal development- when children are developmentally ready to learn a new skill (zone b/w what a child can and can’t do; what a child can do with help) i.e. help riding a bike

Question 29

Scaffolding

Answer 29

children can step to higher levels of thinking

Question 30

Zone of proximal development

Answer 30

when children are developmentally ready to learn a new skill (zone b/w what a child can and can’t do; what a child can do with help) i.e. help riding a bike

Question 31

Crystallized intelligence

Answer 31

The aspect of general intelligence, consisting of the knowledge, facts, information and verbal skills acquired throughout life. Generally increases throughout life

Question 32

Fluid intelligence

Answer 32

The aspect of general intelligence consisting of the capacity to reason quickly and abstractly. Typically decreases throughout life

Question 33

Dementia

Answer 33

a generalized decline in cognitive abilities, including memory, language, and reasoning, severe enough to interfere with daily functioning, caused by various underlying medical conditions; essentially, a significant loss of mental capacity impacting a person's ability to perform everyday tasks.

Question 34

Phonemes

Answer 34

The smallest individual sounds in any language Dog: /d/ /o/ /g/

Question 35

Morphemes

Answer 35

The smallest units of meaning in a language (e.g., root words, prefixes, suffixes) Dogs: /dog/ /s/

Question 36

Semantics

Answer 36

The component of language that provides both the meaning of words and how words combine to form meaning “they saw her duck”

Question 37

Grammar

Answer 37

the system of rules that govern how words are combined to form meaningful sentences within a language

Question 38

Syntax

Answer 38

The aspect of grammar that refers to the rules used to put words in the correct order in a sentence

Question 39

Cooing stage

Answer 39

Cooing is the first step. It involves the soft vowel-like sounds produced by babies when they appear to be happy or content.

Question 40

Babbling stage

Answer 40

Babbling is next. It involves consonant-like sounds and begins around six months

Question 41

One-word stage

Answer 41

Next is one word-stage. This is when children communicate using single words that often convey complex ideas. This is typical from 10-18 months

Question 42

Telegraphic stage

Answer 42

Then telegraphic speech. This involves the first multi-word speech consisting of two or three-word expressions typical from 18-30 months

Question 43

Overgeneralization

Answer 43

a characteristic error when learning a language in which individuals apply grammatical rules too broadly.

Question 44

Ecological systems theory (5)

Answer 44

Microsystems Mesosystem Exosystem Macrosystem Chronosystem

Question 45

Microsystems

Answer 45

Immediate environment

Question 46

Mesosystem

Answer 46

Connections between environments

Question 47

Exosystem

Answer 47

Indirect influences

Question 48

Macrosystem

Answer 48

culture, economic status

Question 49

Chronosystem

Answer 49

major life changes over time

Question 50

Authoritarian (parenting style)

Answer 50

Low in warmth and high in both expectations of maturity and discipline Communication tends to be parent-to-child but not child-to-parent

Question 51

Authoritative (parenting style)

Answer 51

High in warmth and immoderate in expectations and discipline Communication is more likely to be in both directions

Question 52

Permissive (parenting style)

Answer 52

High in warmth and low in expectations of maturity. Discipline is rare Communication happens both ways but is more likely to be child-to-parent

Question 53

Secure attachment

Answer 53

low anxiety/low avoidance Securely attached children have trusting relationships with caregivers which often carry over into adulthood

Question 54

Insecure attachment

Answer 54

a type of emotional bond between a child and caregiver characterized by anxiety, uncertainty, and a lack of trust, often stemming from inconsistent or neglectful caregiving, leading to difficulties in forming healthy relationships later in life; it is the opposite of a secure attachment where a child feels safe and confident with their caregiver.

Question 55

Avoidant (insecure attachment)

Answer 55

an attachment style where an individual tends to avoid emotional closeness and intimacy with others, often stemming from a fear of rejection, and displaying indifference towards caregivers, showing minimal distress when separated, and actively distancing themselves upon reunion, essentially downplaying their need for emotional connection.

Question 56

Separation anxiety

Answer 56

a type of anxiety experienced by a child when separated from their primary caregiver, usually a parent, characterized by distress and fear that is often considered a normal developmental phase, but can become a disorder if the anxiety is excessive and inappropriate for the child's age.

Question 57

Monkey studies (cloth vs. wire mother)

Answer 57

a famous experiment conducted by Harry Harlow where infant rhesus monkeys were given a choice between two surrogate mothers: one made of wire that provided food, and another covered in soft cloth that did not provide food; the monkeys overwhelmingly preferred the cloth mother, demonstrating that attachment is primarily driven by comfort and contact, not just nourishment. Researcher: Harry Harlow Subjects: Infant rhesus monkeys Stimuli: A wire "mother" with a feeding bottle and a cloth-covered "mother" without food Finding: Monkeys spent significantly more time with the cloth mother, even though it did not provide food Significance: This experiment provided crucial evidence for the importance of "contact comfort" in attachment development, highlighting that emotional needs can be as important as physical needs in forming bonds.

Question 58

Parallel play

Answer 58

a developmental stage where children play alongside each other, using similar toys or activities, but without directly interacting or coordinating their play with one another; essentially, they are playing independently while in close proximity to other children.

Question 59

Pretend play

Answer 59

a form of symbolic play where children use their imagination to assign roles and situations to objects, actions, or people, essentially acting out make-believe scenarios, often involving the use of substitute objects to represent something else; it's considered a key part of cognitive development, particularly during the preoperational stage of childhood development

Question 60

Adolescent egocentrism via imaginary audience/personal fable

Answer 60

a developmental stage where teenagers believe they are constantly being watched and judged by others ("imaginary audience") and simultaneously believe their experiences and thoughts are completely unique and special, making them feel invulnerable and exempt from normal rules ("personal fable") - essentially, an exaggerated sense of self-importance and the belief that they are the center of attention.

Question 61

Emerging adulthood

Answer 61

a transitional period of development typically spanning from the late teens to the mid-20s, where individuals are transitioning from adolescence to full adulthood, characterized by identity exploration, instability in work and relationships, and a sense of "being in-between" stages of life; this concept was primarily defined by psychologist Jeffrey Jensen Arnett.

Question 62

Attachment theory (ainsworth)

Answer 62

the psychological concept that early interactions between infants and their primary caregivers establish patterns of attachment, which significantly influence future relationships, with the core idea being that children need to develop a secure bond with a caregiver to feel safe and explore their environment confidently; this theory is often studied using the "Strange Situation" experiment to identify different attachment styles like secure, avoidant, and ambivalent. Key points about Ainsworth's attachment theory: Early interactions matter: The quality of caregiving in infancy shapes a child's attachment style. Secure base: A secure attachment allows a child to use their caregiver as a "secure base" to explore the world from. Strange Situation Test: This experimental procedure is used to observe how infants react to separations and reunions with their caregiver, revealing their attachment style. Attachment styles: Ainsworth identified different attachment styles including secure, insecure-avoidant, and insecure-resistant (ambivalent).

Question 63

8 psychosocial stages (without Erikson name)

Answer 63

"Basic Trust vs. Mistrust," "Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt," "Initiative vs. Guilt," "Industry vs. Inferiority," "Identity vs. Role Confusion," "Intimacy vs. Isolation," "Generativity vs. Stagnation," and "Integrity vs. Despair"; each representing a critical developmental period where a person must resolve a central conflict to progress psychologically. Key points about these stages: Focus on social interactions: Unlike other developmental theories that focus solely on cognitive development, these stages emphasize the social and emotional aspects of development, highlighting how interactions with caregivers and society shape a person's personality. Developmental crisis: Each stage presents a "crisis" or conflict that the individual must navigate to successfully move on to the next stage. Positive and negative outcomes: Successfully resolving a crisis leads to a positive personality trait, while failure can result in a negative trait associated with that stage.

Question 64

Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)

Answer 64

a range of potentially traumatic events that occur during a child's early life, including physical or sexual abuse, emotional neglect, witnessing domestic violence, parental substance abuse, or experiencing parental separation or divorce; these experiences can significantly impact a person's mental and physical health later in life.

Question 65

Achievement (identity process)

Answer 65

the stage where an individual has actively explored different options and made a firm commitment to a particular identity, signifying a strong sense of self and direction after considering various possibilities; essentially, it's the final positive outcome of the identity formation process where a person feels confident about their values and beliefs following exploration.

Question 66

Diffusion (identity process)

Answer 66

a state where an individual has not yet explored different options or made commitments regarding their identity, essentially lacking a clear sense of self and direction, often characterized by a lack of commitment to values or goals; it is considered one of the four identity statuses in James Marcia's theory of identity development, alongside moratorium, foreclosure, and achievement

Question 67

Foreclosure (identity process)

Answer 67

a state where an individual commits to an identity without exploring other options, often accepting values and beliefs directly from authority figures like parents or peers, rather than actively searching for their own identity; essentially, making a decision about who they are without considering different possibilities.

Question 68

Moritorian (identity process)

Answer 68

a stage where an individual is actively exploring different identities and beliefs without making a firm commitment to any one of them, essentially "trying on" different options before settling on a definitive self-concept; it signifies a period of high exploration and low commitment in the identity formation process, usually associated with adolescence.

Question 69

Identities developed: racial

Answer 69

the sense of self an individual forms based on their perception of their racial group membership, including the beliefs, values, and experiences associated with that group, shaped by social interactions and their understanding of race within their environment; essentially, how someone identifies with their race and the meaning they attribute to it.

Question 70

Identities developed: gender

Answer 70

the process by which a person forms their sense of their own gender, including whether they identify as male, female, or another gender, which is influenced by both biological factors and social expectations throughout their development; essentially, it's how someone comes to understand and express their gender identity.

Question 71

Identities developed: sexual orientation

Answer 71

the process by which an individual forms a sense of their own sexual attraction, meaning who they are romantically and sexually drawn to, which can be towards men, women, both, or neither, and how they identify within that spectrum as part of their overall identity; this development usually occurs as a person matures throughout their life.

Question 72

Identities developed: religious

Answer 72

the sense of self a person forms based on their religious beliefs, practices, and affiliation with a particular faith community, essentially defining themselves as part of a specific religious group and incorporating those values into their overall identity.

Question 73

Identities developed: occupational

Answer 73

the part of an individual's self-concept that is formed based on their chosen career path, including their professional roles, skills, values, and how they perceive themselves within their chosen occupation; essentially, it's the sense of "who am I" as defined by one's work life.

Question 74

Identities developed: familial

Answer 74

the aspects of a person's identity that are formed through their interactions with their family, including the values, beliefs, behaviors, and roles they adopt or internalize from their parents and siblings, essentially shaping their sense of self within the family dynamic.

Question 75

Infancy

Answer 75

0-1 years old Trust vs. mistrust Can a baby trust the world to fulfill its needs? The trust or mistrust they develop can carry on with the child for the rest of their lives.

Question 76

Toddlerhood

Answer 76

1-3 years old Autonomy vs. shame and doubt Toddlers begin to control their bodies (toliet training). Control temper tantrums Big word is NO Can they learn control or will they doubt themselves?

Question 77

Preschool

Answer 77

3-6 years old Initiative vs guilt Word turns from “no” to “why?” Want to understand the world and ask questions Is their curiosity encouraged or scolded?

Question 78

Elementary school

Answer 78

6 years old to puberty Industry vs inferiority School begins We are for the first time evaluated by a formal system and our peers Do we feel good or bad about our accomplishments? Can lead to us feeling bad about ourselves for the rest of our lives… inferiority complex

Question 79

Adolescence

Answer 79

Teenage years into 20s Identity vs role confusion In our teenage years we try out different roles Who am I? What group do I fit in with? If I do not find myself I may develop an identity crisis

Question 80

Young adulthood

Answer 80

20s-early 40s Intimacy vs isolation Have to balance work and relationships What are my priorities? Do I have meaningful/romantic relationships?

Question 81

Middle adulthood

Answer 81

40s-60s Generativity vs stagnation Is everything going as planned? Am I happy with what I created? Mid-life crisis!

Question 82

Late adulthood

Answer 82

Late 60s+ Integrity vs despair Look back on life Was my life meaningful or do I have regrets?