Unit 4 Flashcards

Question

Secondary Reinforcer

Answer 1

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through association with a primary reinforcer, meaning it's learned to be reinforcing, rather than having inherent value. Definition: A secondary reinforcer is a stimulus that, through repeated pairing with a primary reinforcer (something that naturally satisfies a biological need), becomes associated with that primary reinforcer and gains reinforcing power. Example: A dog might not initially find the sound of a clicker rewarding, but if the clicker is consistently paired with a food treat (a primary reinforcer), the dog will eventually learn to associate the clicker sound with the treat and respond to the clicker as a reward. Learned Association: The key is that secondary reinforcers are learned associations, not innate responses. Examples of Secondary Reinforcers: Money: Money itself doesn't satisfy a biological need, but it can be used to obtain primary reinforcers like food or shelter. Grades: Grades are not inherently rewarding, but they can be associated with praise or other rewards, making them a secondary reinforcer. Praise: Verbal praise, like "good job," is not inherently rewarding, but it can be associated with primary reinforcers like affection or attention, making it a secondary reinforcer. Tokens: Tokens earned for good behavior can be exchanged for other rewards, making them a secondary reinforcer. Relationship to Operant Conditioning: Secondary reinforcers play a crucial role in operant conditioning, where behaviors are learned through consequences.

Answer 2

a method of operant conditioning where a complex target behavior is taught by reinforcing successive approximations of that behavior, moving incrementally towards the desired outcome.

Answer 3

the tendency for an animal to revert to its natural, instinctual behaviors, even when those behaviors interfere with a previously learned behavior through operant conditioning. Example: The Brelands famously demonstrated this with raccoons, who, despite being trained to put coins in a box, would revert to their natural food-washing behavior (rubbing coins together) when given multiple coins.

Answer 4

actions that are repeated, not because they cause a desired outcome, but because they are coincidentally followed by a positive or negative event, leading to a false belief in control. Accidental Reinforcement/Punishment: Superstitious behaviors arise when a behavior is followed by a reinforcer (something that increases the likelihood of a behavior) or punisher (something that decreases the likelihood of a behavior) even though the behavior itself doesn't cause the reinforcer or punisher. False Belief in Control: The individual mistakenly believes that performing the superstitious behavior is what caused the positive or negative outcome, leading to the repetition of the behavior. Example: A baseball player might start tapping the plate with his bat every time he comes up to bat because he got a hit after doing so once, even though the tapping had nothing to do with the hit. Operant Conditioning: Superstitious behavior is a classic example of operant conditioning, where a behavior is strengthened or weakened based on its consequences. B.F. Skinner's Experiment: B.F. Skinner conducted an experiment where he randomly delivered food to pigeons, and the pigeons began to develop peculiar behaviors that they seemed to associate with getting the food, such as pecking at a certain spot or turning in a circle.

Answer 5

a state where an individual, after repeatedly experiencing unavoidable aversive stimuli, becomes passive and accepts the situation, even when opportunities for escape or change are available. Definition: Learned helplessness is a mental state that develops when someone experiences repeated negative events or situations that they feel are beyond their control. Mechanism: The individual learns that their actions or efforts do not lead to a better outcome, leading them to give up trying to change the situation, even when they could. Examples: A student who consistently fails at a subject may develop learned helplessness and stop studying, even when they have the ability to improve. Someone who experiences repeated failures in a relationship might become convinced that they are unable to find a good partner, even if they are in a new relationship. Connection to Depression: Learned helplessness is considered a factor in the development of depression and other mental health issues. Attributions: Learned helplessness can be linked to internal attributions (blaming oneself) or external attributions (blaming external factors). Neuroscience: Neuroscience research suggests that the brain's default state is to assume that control is not present, and the presence of control is learned, which can be unlearned when faced with prolonged aversive stimulation. Self-Efficacy: Learned helplessness is related to the concept of self-efficacy, which is an individual's belief in their ability to achieve goals.

Answer 6

continuous reinforcement means rewarding a desired behavior every time it occurs, while partial reinforcement (also known as intermittent reinforcement) means rewarding the behavior only sometimes. Continuous Reinforcement: Involves reinforcing a behavior every time it's displayed. Leads to rapid learning, but also rapid extinction of the behavior if reinforcement stops. Example: Giving a child a sticker every time they raise their hand in class. Study.com says "Every time a child remembers to raise their hand in class, the teacher gives them a sticker." Partial Reinforcement: Reinforces a behavior only some of the time. Leads to slower initial learning, but the learned behavior is more resistant to extinction. Example: A child who raises their hand doesn't always get a sticker, but gets one on an intermittent basis. Study.com says "The child who raises their hand doesn't always get a sticker, but gets one on an intermittent basis."

Answer 7

a type of reinforcement schedule where a response is reinforced after a fixed or predetermined number of responses, regardless of the time elapsed Operant Conditioning: Fixed-ratio schedules are a type of reinforcement schedule used in operant conditioning, a learning process where behavior is modified through consequences. Reinforcement: Reinforcement is any stimulus that increases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. Fixed Ratio: In a fixed-ratio schedule, reinforcement is delivered after a specific number of responses are made. Example: If a rat is reinforced (e.g., with food) every time it presses a lever five times, it's on an FR-5 schedule. High Response Rate: Fixed-ratio schedules tend to produce a high, steady rate of responding, as individuals learn that their effort directly leads to rewards. Post-Reinforcement Pause: There can be a brief pause in responding immediately after reinforcement, as the individual waits for the next opportunity to receive reinforcement. Examples: A factory worker getting paid for every 10 units they produce. A student getting a sticker for every 5 math problems completed.

Answer 8

a type of partial reinforcement schedule where a response is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses, leading to a high, steady rate of responding. Partial Reinforcement: Unlike continuous reinforcement (where every response is reinforced), partial reinforcement only reinforces some responses. Variable Ratio: In a variable-ratio schedule, the number of responses required for reinforcement varies randomly. High, Steady Response Rate: This schedule tends to produce a high and consistent rate of responding because individuals don't know when the next reinforcement will occur, leading to persistent attempts. Examples: Gambling, slot machines, and fishing are common examples of behaviors reinforced under a variable-ratio schedule, as the reward (winning) is unpredictable. Resistant to Extinction Variable ratio schedules are more resistant to extinction than fixed ratio schedules because the unpredictable nature of reinforcement keeps the behavior going

Answer 9

a reward is delivered after a specific, predetermined amount of time has passed, regardless of how many responses occur, leading to a pattern of slow responding after reinforcement and a burst of responding as the time for reinforcement approaches. Definition: A fixed-interval schedule is a type of reinforcement schedule where a reward or reinforcement is delivered after a specific, fixed amount of time has elapsed. Example: A common example is getting a weekly paycheck, where the reward (paycheck) is delivered every week, regardless of how much work is done during the week. Behavioral Pattern: This schedule tends to produce a pattern of slow responding immediately after reinforcement, followed by an increase in responding as the time for the next reinforcement approaches. Why it's called "fixed": The key characteristic is that the time interval between reinforcements is consistent and predictable. Other examples: An annual performance review Giving a quiz every Friday morning A monthly meeting that happens every first Thursday A worker getting paid every two weeks

Answer 10

rewards a behavior after an unpredictable amount of time has passed, leading to a relatively steady, moderate rate of responding. Definition: A variable-interval schedule reinforces a behavior after a varying amount of time has elapsed, rather than a fixed time period. Example: Imagine a fishing trip where you don't know when the fish will bite, but you keep fishing because you might get a reward (a fish) at any moment. Behavioral Impact: Because the reinforcement is unpredictable, individuals tend to respond at a consistent rate, as they don't know when the next reinforcement might occur. Resistant to Extinction: Variable-interval schedules are more resistant to extinction than fixed-interval schedules because the uncertainty of reinforcement keeps the behavior going. Contrast with Fixed-Interval: In contrast to a fixed-interval schedule, where reinforcement occurs after a set amount of time, variable-interval schedules introduce an element of unpredictability, making them more effective in maintaining behavior.

Answer 11

grasping how behaviors are reinforced, which can be visualized through graphing patterns. These patterns, like scalloped response rates in fixed-interval schedules, help predict behavior based on reinforcement timing and frequency. 1. Fixed Ratio (FR): Definition: Reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses. Example: A worker gets paid for every 10 items produced. Graphing Pattern: A straight line with consistent marks indicating reinforcement points. Response Rate: High and steady. 2. Variable Ratio (VR): Definition: Reinforcement occurs after a variable number of responses. Example: A slot machine pays out randomly after a variable number of pulls. Graphing Pattern: A straight line with random points where reinforcement occurs. Response Rate: High and steady. 3. Fixed Interval (FI): Definition: Reinforcement occurs after a fixed amount of time, regardless of the number of responses. Example: A worker gets paid every Friday, regardless of how much they work. Graphing Pattern: A scalloped shape, with low response rates initially, increasing as the reinforcement time approaches. Response Rate: Low initially, increasing as the reinforcement time nears. 4. Variable Interval (VI): Definition: Reinforcement occurs after a variable amount of time, regardless of the number of responses. Example: Checking your email frequently, as you don't know when an important message will arrive. Graphing Pattern: A relatively straight line with random points where reinforcement occurs. Response Rate: Steady, but lower than variable ratio.

Answer 12

individuals learn behaviors, attitudes, and emotions by observing, imitating, and modeling others, particularly those they perceive as role models, and through experiencing vicarious reinforcement or punishment. Observational Learning: Social learning theory emphasizes that learning occurs through observing the behaviors and outcomes of others, rather than solely through direct reinforcement or punishment. Modeling: Individuals are more likely to imitate behaviors that are perceived as successful or rewarding, especially if the model is someone they admire or identify with. Vicarious Reinforcement/Punishment: Learning can also occur by observing the consequences of others' actions. If a person observes someone being rewarded for a certain behavior, they are more likely to engage in that behavior, and vice versa. Albert Bandura is a prominent figure in the study of social learning theory. Examples: A child learning to tie their shoes by watching a parent. A teenager adopting a certain style of dress or music taste based on their peers. Learning about social norms by observing interactions in a classroom or workplace.

Answer 13

learning by observing the consequences of others' actions, rather than through direct experience. Observational Learning: Vicarious conditioning is a type of observational learning, where individuals learn by watching others and observing the outcomes of their behaviors. Learning Through Observation: Instead of experiencing something firsthand, people learn by seeing others react to a stimulus or situation. Example: If a child sees a peer get praised for answering a question in class, they might be more likely to participate more actively in the future, even without personally experiencing that praise. Contrast with Direct Experience: Vicarious conditioning differs from direct conditioning (like classical or operant conditioning) where an individual learns through their own experiences. Consequences as a Learning Tool: The key aspect of vicarious conditioning is that the learner observes the consequences (positive or negative) of another person's actions and adjusts their own behavior accordingly. Example of vicarious classical conditioning A child sees their peer react fearfully to a barking dog and subsequently develops a fear of dogs, even if they have never directly encountered a barking dog before.

Answer 14

a sudden, often novel realization of a problem's solution, rather than a gradual process of trial and error. It involves a cognitive restructuring or mental rearrangement to achieve understanding. Definition: Insight learning is a form of cognitive learning where individuals or animals solve a problem using a sudden understanding or realization, rather than through trial and error. Key Characteristics: Sudden Realization: The solution appears "out of the blue" after a period of attempting to solve the problem. Cognitive Process: It involves internal mental processes, such as visualizing the problem and the solution, rather than simply responding to environmental stimuli. Long-Lasting Change: Once insight occurs, the understanding of how to solve the problem can be applied to similar situations in the future. Not Trial and Error: Insight learning is distinguished from trial-and-error learning, where solutions are reached through repeated attempts and feedback. Example: Wolfgang Köhler's experiments with chimpanzees demonstrated insight learning, where the chimps would suddenly realize how to stack boxes to reach food, rather than trying different combinations repeatedly. Connection to other learning concepts: Insight learning is a type of cognitive learning, contrasting with behaviorist approaches like classical and operant conditioning, which focus on stimulus-response associations.

Answer 15

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there's an incentive to demonstrate it, meaning knowledge is acquired without immediate reinforcement or motivation, but is later used when needed. Definition: Latent learning is a type of learning where an individual or animal learns something but doesn't show that learning until there's a reason to do so, or until a specific incentive or motivation is introduced. Example: Imagine a child learning the layout of a new park by wandering around with their parents, but only showing their knowledge of the park's layout when they are tasked with finding a specific location, like the playground. Key Concept: Latent learning challenges the idea that learning only happens with immediate rewards or reinforcement, suggesting that learning can occur passively and be stored for later use. Edward Tolman's Research: The concept of latent learning was extensively studied by psychologist Edward Tolman, who conducted experiments with rats in mazes to demonstrate this type of learning. Tolman's Maze Experiment: Tolman's experiments showed that rats who explored a maze without any reward still learned the layout of the maze, and when a reward (food) was later placed at the end, the rats quickly found the shortest path, demonstrating that they had learned the maze layout even without immediate reinforcement. Cognitive Maps: Tolman's work also introduced the concept of cognitive maps, which are mental representations of spatial environments that help individuals navigate and find their way. Latent learning vs. observational learning: While observational learning involves learning by watching others, latent learning is about learning that is not immediately demonstrated, even if the individual has been exposed to the information.

Answer 16

a mental representation of a spatial environment, helping individuals navigate, recall information, and understand their surroundings. Definition: A cognitive map is an internal model or "mental picture" of a physical space, including the layout, landmarks, and relationships between different locations. Origin: The concept of cognitive maps was introduced by psychologist Edward Tolman in the 1940s, who used it to explain how rats appeared to learn the spatial layout of a maze. Purpose: Cognitive maps are used for: Navigation: Helping individuals find their way through unfamiliar areas. Memory: Storing and recalling information about spatial locations. Learning: Understanding the relationships between different places and objects. Decision-Making: Assessing routes and planning actions based on spatial knowledge. Examples: Knowing how to get to your favorite coffee shop without using GPS. Being able to give someone directions to your house. Understanding the layout of your school or workplace. Variations: Cognitive maps can vary depending on individual experience, cultural background, and the specific environment being mapped. Tolman's experiments: Tolman's experiments with rats demonstrated that they could learn the spatial layout of a maze, even when the goal was changed, suggesting they had developed a cognitive map of the maze.

Unit 4 Flashcards

(40 cards)