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Theories of Personality > Chapter 2 - Science and Sciencing > Flashcards

Chapter 2 - Science and Sciencing Flashcards

1
Q

Folk Methods

A

Ways of doing things either by intuition or by society. (ask authority, make own inquiries, think things through)

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2
Q

What branches or approaches to Psychology uses folk methods?

A

Popular Psychology, Artistic Psychology, or Literary Approach to Psychology

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3
Q

Folk Theories

A

Beliefs based on received wisdom, not concrete facts

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4
Q

What are 2 main problems with folk theories? (Why do we need to do science?)

A

Inaccuracy (either through personal biases or counter-intuition), and dogmatism (believing theories regardless of contrary evidence, or not knowing that we believe in a particular theory)

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5
Q

Retrievability Bias

A

The tendency to recall what is easy to remember (what’s common, recent, and/or leaves a strong impression)

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6
Q

Apophenia bias

A

The tendency to look for patterns and spot patterns in randomness

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7
Q

Anchoring Bias (insufficient adjustment bias)

A

The failure to adjust to new information given existing salient information

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8
Q

What is the Latin meaning of science? (not the definition in english)

A

“Scientia”; Knowledge

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9
Q

Science (definition)

A

Extensive, Shared, Durable and Organized knowledge

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10
Q

Sciencing (define)

A

The employment of methods to produce knowledge in science

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11
Q

What are the scientist’s obligations?

A

To believe what’s dependable and not believe what isn’t dependable, to be a reliable source of knowledge, and to create knowledge through sciencing (with other scientists)

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12
Q

What’s the Demarcation Problem?

A

The conundrum of finding criteria to differentiate science and non-science.

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13
Q

What did Aristotle believe is scientific knowledge?

A

To know what is and why

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14
Q

What is the modern solution to the demarcation problem?

A

Find clusters of features that constitute science and make it on a spectrum

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15
Q

What is wrong with Aristotle’s criteria for science?

A

There are far too many counterexamples (this is a problem with anyone who tried coming up with criteria for science)

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16
Q

Sufficient (if) vs. Necessary (only if) conditions for the following scenarios:
A is sufficient or necessary for B.
1) B has occurred. What is true about A?
2) A has occurred. What is true about B?
3) B not occurring. What is true about A?
4) A not occurring. What is true about B?

A

1 Sufficient: If B occurred, A is not guaranteed to have occurred.
1 Necessary: If B occurred, A is guaranteed to have occurred.
2 Sufficient: If A occurred, B is guaranteed to have occurred.
2 Necessary: If A occurred, unknown about B
3 Sufficient: If B didn’t occur, A didn’t occur
3 Necessary: If B didn’t occur, unknown about A
4 Sufficient: If A didn’t occur, unknown about B
4 Necessary: If A didn’t occur, B didn’t occur

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17
Q

Both Necessary AND Sufficient Condition (define)

A

B if and only if A

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18
Q

What are some features of Facts?

A

They describe the way things are. They don’t exist inside the world. They cannot be True/False. They are never wrong, only we are. They cannot be definitions or meanings.

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19
Q

What are the 2 disciplines in science? What are their differences?

A

Factual and Formal Sciences. Factual sciences are focused on factual verification (Biology, Psychology, Physics, etc.) and Formal sciences are focused on generating ideas and knowledge (Math, Logic, etc.)

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20
Q

What is C, S and D in “components of the sciences?”. The substantive framework of the sciences.

A

Community, Society, and Discourse:
Community is about the group of trained people. Scientists/Researchers;
Society is the group that hosts the community. Ideally they support the community;
Discourse is the contents of discussions and inquires of objects initiated by the community

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21
Q

What are objects?

A

Anything perceivable or conceivable

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22
Q

What is W and F in “components of the sciences?”

A

Worldview and Formal Background:
Worldview is the philosophical views that guide thoughts and approaches;
Formal Background is the systems and models derived from theory

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23
Q

What is InterK and IntraK in “components of the sciences?”

A

InterK is knowledge borrowed from other fields;
IntraK is knowledge borrowed from past or current members of the Community

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24
Q

What is P, A, and M in “components of the sciences?”

A

Problematics, Aim, and Methodics
Problematics are a set of problems for the Community to solve, either for curiosity or for a mission
Aim is the direction to solve Problematics. They can be basic (curiosity-heavy) , applied (mission-heavy), or technical (applying artefacts)
Methodics are orderly methods using a series of techniques for the Community to do the Aim

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25
Q

What are the Hallmarks of Scientific Technique?

A

1) They roughly produce the same results to anyone competent that replicates the research
2) They produce results that are open to investigation
3) The results are explainable through scientific theory

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26
Q

What does non-science roughly consist of?

A

The humanities and occult fields

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27
Q

What’s different about the non-sciences (humanities) in the D (Discourse)?

A

They tend to be more conceptual than physical

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28
Q

Is it true that science and humanities have little to no overlap?

A

No, there should be criteria to distinguish if that’s true.

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29
Q

Pseudo-science (definition)

A

Fake science; appears to be but is not science

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30
Q

What is unique about F (formal knowledge) in the occults?

A

It doesn’t exist, or when it is applied, it often demonstrates that things are defective

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31
Q

What are scientific worldviews?

A

Philosophical disagreements concerning belief

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32
Q

Realism

A

A belief system that some things are real, and that those things are mind-independent

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33
Q

Ontology

A

The study of being (ie. existing) and be-ing anything (eg. being hot)

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34
Q

Ontological Realism

A

Belief that a single reality exists and that some entities that make reality are mind-independent

35
Q

What do disagreements about be-ing tend to be about?

A

About the unobservables (entities not subject to direct sensory perception) rather than the observables

36
Q

Semantics (definition)

A

the study and defense of meaning

37
Q

Descriptive vs. Normative Statements

A

Descriptive = can be T/F. Normative pertains to norms.

38
Q

Truth Values

A

Values that determine whether or not a propositional statement represents the way things are in reality

39
Q

Principle of bivalence

A

Every proposition is either True or False, and can never be both

40
Q

Multivalence

A

More than 2 truth values (ex: True, False, and indeterminate or in between; maybe a future statement)

41
Q

Fuzzy Logics

A

Truth value can be represented by an interval [0, 1]

42
Q

Relative Statements

A

Incomplete and not truth-apt (ex: depends on time, place, etc.)

43
Q

Partially True Statements

A

1) Some true and some false information or 2) Omits important information

44
Q

Semantic Realism

A

The belief that at least some descriptive statements represent some things that are mind-independently true (reflects in reality)

45
Q

3 Views about Truth (What does it mean for a statement to be true?)

A

Correspondence (does it correspond to reality?), Coherence (does it align with other statements regarded as true?), Redundancy (is it true in itself without saying that it’s true? doesn’t relate to something)

46
Q

Semantic Anti-Realism

A

Textualism = no statement refers to reality

47
Q

Instrumentalism

A

A form of pragmatism where practical consequences are concerned

48
Q

Scientific Instrumentalism

A

Propositional statements are fundamentally just instruments to accomplish aims (it is quite like realism for the observables)

49
Q

Epistemology

A

The study and defense of Knowledge

50
Q

Epistemological Realism

A

Belief that it is possible to have genuine knowledge about a mind-independent reality

51
Q

What is necessary to believe for epistemological realism?

A

That knowers are part of reality, that they are separate from what’s to-be-known, and that knowledge comes from knowers interacting with the to-be-known

52
Q

Anti-Realism in Epistemology

A

Real knowledge is impossible (epistemological skepticism), or deny mind-independence of what can be known (epistemological relativism)

53
Q

Apprehending vs. Comprehending

A

Apprehending is knowing about something, Comprehending is understanding it (well enough to teach or do it)

54
Q

Entity Realism

A

While unobservables may be part of reality, we can’t really know them

55
Q

Scientific Realism

A

Belief that well-specified propositions make it possible to know observables. Requires belief in ontological, epistemological, and semantic realism

56
Q

Fallibilism

A

The liability to err is part of the human condition, so we can never have absolute certainty concerning questions of facts

57
Q

Infallibilism

A

Belief that some form of certainty is required for scientific knowledge

58
Q

Certainty

A

Indicates something is fixed and applies to things and persons

59
Q

Do we have to be certain to know?

A

No. We also don’t have to know things to be certain

60
Q

Ontically objective/subjective entities

A

Entities that meet/don’t meet certain criteria for mind-independence (ex: price inflation has multiple causes)

61
Q

Epistemically objective/subjective statements

A

Concerns for matters of facts/non-factual matters

62
Q

3 Classes of Sources of Knowledge

A

Authority, Reason, Experience

63
Q

Epistemic Authority

A

Knowledge comes from authority that has particular knowledge

64
Q

Rationalism (mild, strong versions)

A

Reason is the way to arrive at knowledge. Mild - rational thought is required to acquire knowledge. Strong - reason is sufficient justification for some claims

65
Q

Priori Knowledge

A

Knowledge before (or without) experience. Pretty true for necessary truths. Extreme will say reality is inherently logical, so contingent truths can also be found through pure reason

66
Q

Rational Intuition

A

The ability to grasp truth-values by thinking about them. Used for self-evident propositions

67
Q

Ratiocination

A

The ability to determine truth values through sequential reasoning

68
Q

Empiricism

A

The emphasis on the role of experience to justify knowledge claims (strong says all knowledge is posterioi).

69
Q

What is required to believe Empiricism

A

the belief that we can experience something as it really is without bias or other influences

70
Q

What is experience?

A

Sense-perception: The use of senses to perceive
Introspection: The looking into oneself: to the mind (an inner sense-perception) or to what we are doing or what we have done

71
Q

What’s wrong with empiricism and rationalism?

A

Neither are sufficient to justify knowledge claims by themselves. Empiricism underestimates human fallibility. Rationalism overestimates priori knowledge, which is limited to normative statements

72
Q

Axiology

A

The study and defense of Worth or value

73
Q

Axiological Realism

A

At least some valuation standards are grounded in facts and objective statements about them are truth-apt

74
Q

Axiological Anti-Realism

A

All values are subjective

75
Q

How does Axiological Realism relate to knowledge?

A

It guides what we aim and the methods we use to get knowledge

76
Q

Strong versions of Axiological Realism in Science

A

The paramount value is truthfulness. The aim is to describe reality as it is

77
Q

Milder versions of Axiological Realism in Science

A

Truthfulness is the paramount value, but human fallibility makes it impossible to know what reality really is

78
Q

Versimilitude

A

Truth-likeness. How close to the truth a claim is

79
Q

Axiological Anti-Realism in Science

A

Truthfulness is not the paramount value, or truth is unobtainable in factual fields

80
Q

Methodology

A

The study and defense of methods and their techniques. Not the same as methods (orderly way of achieving aim).

81
Q

What does Methodology have strong links to?

A

Epistemology and Axiology (Epistemology because it is the way to arrive at knowledge (or to justify knowledge claims). Axiology because it tells us what to aim)

82
Q

Methodological Realism (Monistic and Pluralistic views)

A

Monistic: There is one particular method.
Pluralistic: There are multiple legitimate methods to learn about reality. Concern is which methods are ok.

83
Q

Methodological Anti-Realism

A

Anything goes with methods

Theories of Personality (6 decks)

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