Chapter 3 Flashcards
(196 cards)
1
Q
End of Byzantine empire
A
attack of Constantinople
Constantinople, an ancient Christian city, was all that remained from the declining Byzantine Empire. This empire dated back to the 4th Century. It used to be the eastern half of the Roman Empire. Constantinople was still a large fortified city that would not be conquered easily.
2
Q
Attack of Constantinople
A
- In 1453, Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire, was attacked by Mehmed II of the Ottoman Empire. -Mehmed II had meticulously planned his decisive attack on the Byzantine capital.
- He had 70 ships pulled on land all the way to the Black Sea to cut Constantinople from the rest of the world. He also had the largest canon ever used at his disposition to demolish the fortified walls of Constantinople.
3
Q
consequences fall Constantinople
A
The fall of Constantinople was awful economic news for Europe. Constantinople had been an important market where the European merchants could regularly acquire oriental goods such as silk and the spices that made their food edible (cinnamon, pepper, ginger, nutmeg, cloves…).
4
Q
what problem were the 16th century merchants faced with
A
-The expansion of the Ottoman Empire in the 15th and 16th Century disrupted traditional trade routes that had allowed European merchants to obtain Asian goods in Constantinople. They needed to find a new route to bypass the Ottoman Empire that was hostile to the commercial interests of European merchants and kingdoms.
5
Q
solution to the probelm faced by 16th century merchants after the fall of constantinople (tools)
A
- Luckily the Europeans had developed many inventions such as the caravel, the compass and the astrolabe (it measures latitude) during the Renaissance.
- These inventions facilitated navigation on the high seas.
6
Q
ancient map of the world and its uses
A
-European explorers also “benefited” from the rediscovery of the works of Ptolemy, an ancient astronomer and geographer. This map was misleading because many things are missing such as the Pacific Ocean, the Americas and Australia. Thus, it gave the impression that the planet is smaller than it actually is.
7
Q
OG travel blog influencer
A
-The publication of the The Travels of Marco Polo also inspired men to seek glory and wealth through exploration.
8
Q
the first European country to begin exploration. which ruler and why
A
- Henry the Navigator, a Portuguese prince from the Aviz dynasty, was the first wealthy European to finance long voyages at sea.
- Portugal was a poor and small kingdom that lived permanently in fear of being conquered by Spain. Finding wealth in distant lands could make the Portuguese feel stronger and safer.
9
Q
first Portuguese age of exploration discoveries
A
-The first Portuguese explorers were able to discover islands of the Atlantic such as the Azores (1427), Cape Verde (1444).
10
Q
other Portuguese discoveries, (land the the resources found there)
A
-The Portuguese also explored areas the western littoral of Africa such as Sierra Leone and Ghana to have a maritime access to gold from the Niger River (Gold was very rare in Europe. The presence of great quantities of gold in the Niger River was known since 1324 when King Musa I of Mali made his pilgrimage to Mecca. He injected so much gold into the economy of Mecca that it caused major inflation problems in Arabia during the ensuing years).
11
Q
economic consequences of exploration for the Portuguese
A
-The Portuguese voyages to Africa allowed them to become involved in lucrative endeavors such as trading slaves, ivory and gold in exchange for European goods like guns (enslaved Africans were brought into Portugal as early as 1444 for the sugar planters on the Portuguese island of Madeira. This system of exploiting enslaved Africans was extended to the Americas).
12
Q
Major commercial discovery vis a vis trade paths (not America)
A
-In 1488, Bartolomeu Dias (portuguese) became the first European explorer to sail around the Cape of Good Hope, the southernmost point of the African continent. They were the first European to navigate from the Atlantic Ocean to the Indian Ocean.-This was a major breakthrough but Dias did not reach India because his crew suffered from scurvy. Dias faced a mutiny and he was forced to return to Portugal.
13
Q
Vasco de Gama
A
- Vasco de Gama used this route (cape hope) to reach Calcutta, India in 1497 (he also faced threats of munity from his crew due to many cases scurvy).
- His voyage lasted 2 years. It was extremely profitable since he was able to fill his ships with expensive oriental spices.
14
Q
new port from this new trade route to the Indies
A
-Many of his [Vasco de Gama] countrymen imitated him. The port of Goa on the west coast of India became a regular destination for Portuguese merchants.
15
Q
Who rejected Columbus
A
- The Portuguese were satisfied. They knew after 1488 when Dias sailed pass the Cape of Good Hope that they were about to make a major breakthrough. This is why they had ignored Christopher Columbus, an Italian navigator, who had tried to convince them that sailing westward would allow them to reach India more quickly than by going around Africa (Columbus conceived this idea as early as the 1470s).
- Columbus was also turned down in England by Henry VII (i.e., the father and redecessor of Henry VIII).
16
Q
who said yes Columbus
A
- Columbus turned to the monarchs of Spain, Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon. This royal couple had merged their kingdoms with their marriage in 1469.
- The Spanish rulers were busy with the Reconquista between 1469 and 1492 so they made Columbus wait. (The Reconquista was a long series of conflict that allowed the Christians of Spain to reconquer the territories that had been invaded by Muslims in the 8th Century).
- In 1492, the monarchs of Spain definitively defeated the Moors (Muslims from southern Spain) by conquering Granada, the last Muslim kingdom of Europe. The Reconquista was finally over. The monarchs of Spain were in a festive mood and they accepted to invest in Columbus’s plan.
17
Q
Columbus squad
A
-The triumphant royal couple decided to give 120 men and 3 vessels (Nina, Pinta and Santa Maria) to Columbus.
18
Q
Columbus mission
A
His mission was to find a western passage to India and precious minerals.
19
Q
Why was Columbus’ calculations off ?
A
Columbus never believed that the Earth is flat but he badly underestimated the circumference of the Earth like most of his contemporaries (he believed that Japan was only 4,000 kilometers east of Europe. The real distance is 20,000 kilometers).
20
Q
how long trip 2 where Columbus
A
-It took Columbus and his crew 5 weeks to reach the Bahamas. He also reached the island of Hispaniola during his first voyage.
21
Q
first meeting Columbus and first aboriginal people
A
-During his first voyage Columbus met the Caribs and Arawaks and he called them Indians. He was surprised by their lack of clothing and weapons:
22
Q
Columbus other trips ?
A
-Columbus made three other voyages to the New World during which he discovered the main islands of the Caribbean such as Puerto Rico, Cuba, Jamaica and Trinidad (1493, 1498 and 1502). He assumed that these islands were part of Asia.
23
Q
Final trip ? Columbus constats?
A
-Columbus did reach the continent of the Americas by arriving in Panama during his last voyage in 1502 but he never admitted that he discovered a new continent.
24
Q
first map americas
A
-It was Amerigo Vespucci who was financed by Portugal in 1507 that made the first map of the Americas.
25
Balboa discovery
-The Spaniards returned to Panama in 1513. They were led by Balboa who ``discovered`` the Pacific Ocean (Francisco Pizzaro, a future conquistador was part of the crew of Balboa).
26
epidemiological consequences of the age of exploration
- The first European explorers carried contagious European viral diseases such as smallpox, influenza and the plague that had never existed in the Americas and they exploited and mistreated the natives (the Caribs and the Arawaks were decimated by the Spaniards).
- For example, the island of Hispaniola had a population of 250,000 people when Columbus arrived. This native population declined drastically to only 500 people during the next 40 years (Kreis, 2002).
27
first expedition around the earth who from where
-Ferdinand Magellan’s expedition completed the first circumnavigation of the globe in 1522. He left Spain with five ships (Magellan was from Portugal but he was financed by Spain).
28
Explain how Magellan #girl bossed too close to the sun
- Magellan’s mission was to find a way through the Americas to reach Asia.
- He discovered that strait that now bears his name but his journey proved to be longer and harder than expected. It took more than one month to navigate across the Strait of Magellan. He lost two ships in the process.
- It took him more than 3 months to cross the Pacific Ocean-Magellan was killed in the Philippines after crossing the Pacific.
- Juan Sebastian Elcano and 18 crewmembers were able to salvage a vessel and complete the voyage.
29
how was "Magellan's" voyage important
-This voyage proved that the Earth was undoubtedly round that it was possible to sail around it.
30
how did all the new geographical discoveries influence England and France
-These achievements inspired England to send John Cabot (1497) and France sent Jacques Cartier (1534). But they both failed to find a passage to India and their kingdoms were not able to establish permanent colonies in the Americas before the 17th Century (i.e., Jamestown, Virginia and Quebec City).
31
The legal owners of the new world
- On the other hand, the Spanish and the Portuguese had already claimed that the New World belonged to them as early as 1494 with the Treaty of Tordesillas.
- In 1500, Cabral took possession of Brazil for Portugal but this small kingdom did not plan to establish other large colonies.
- The Portuguese simply hoped to develop a system of commercial outposts (Brazil became so prosperous that the Portuguese were unable to control trade in this colony).
32
Brazil's economy
-Sugar was the cornerstone of Brazil’s economy. This colony received the largest share of the 12 to 15 million enslaved Africans who completed the Middle Passage.
33
How did Spain's conquest differ from Portugal's
- The lion’s share of the continent was taken by Spain: ``unlike Portugal, Spain found its empire on conquest and colonization, and not trade`` (Kreis, 2002).
- The Spanish conquistadors were obsessed with “God, Glory and Gold”. Because of their desire for gold and glory the Spaniards quickly turned exploration into exploitation in the early 16th Century.
34
Herman Cortés leave Spain why and when
-Hernan Cortés had left Spain in 1504 to move to Hispaniola
35
Herman Cortés Begin mission goal (officioal and personal) when where and
-In 1519 he left Cuba and landed in Veracruz (Mexico). His mission was only to explore the Yucatan Peninsula.
–Cortes had heard stories of an advanced and wealthy civilization in that part of the Americas.
-Cortes had too much ambition to settle for the reconnaissance mission he was given. He was a conqueror and he burned his ships as soon as he arrived in Veracruz to make sure that his troops would no turn back.
36
Cortés ressources (6 elements)
-Cortes had 600 men, 10 cannons and 16 horses (Grant, 2009). He was also accompanied by La Malinche (she is also known as Dona Marina and she was Cortes`s mistress), his interpreter and about 250 other natives. He also had intimidating dogs that were commonly use in European wars.
37
Cortés final destination
-Their ultimate destination was Tenochtitlan (Mexico City), the capital of the Aztec Empire that had been founded around 1325 (the city used to be an island. It was surrounded by Lake Texcoco. This lake was a basin that does not exist anymore).
38
Cortés alliances
-On his way to Tenochtitlan, Cortes defeated the Tlaxcalas and he forced them into an alliance against the Aztecs.
39
Initial reaction from the Aztecs towards the Spanish
- Montezuma (Moctezuma), the emperor of the Aztecs, was surprised by the visit of Cortés and his troops. He also had reports that the Spaniards had very powerful weapons.
- Montezuma was hospitable and the Spaniards were able to stay in the Aztecs’ imperial capital: ``A sumptuous dinner was provided for us according to their use and custom, and we ate it at once. So this was our lucky and daring entry into the great city of Tenochtitlan`` Bernal Diaz del Castillo, 1567.
40
What was the initial explanation of the Aztecs towards the Spanish
-The traditional explanation is that Montezuma believed that Cortés could be Quetzalcoatl, a god that was supposed to come back to Earth. - this probs not true
41
Cortés initial reaction towards the Aztecs
-Cortes was also impressed by the Aztec capital that was one of the largest cities in the world in the 16th century with a population of approximately 250,000 inhabitants: “considering that this is a barbarous nation (Aztec Empire) shut off from knowledge of the true God and communication with enlightened nations, one may marvel at the orderliness and the good government which is everywhere maintained.” Hernan Cortés
42
Cortés later relationship with Montezuma
-Cortes took advantage of Montezuma’s indecisiveness and hospitality. He captured him and Cortes started to use Montezuma to exert his own power over the Aztecs.
43
problems arising form Cortés in Tenochtitlan
- In 1520, Cortes encountered a few problems. Many Aztecs were determined to get rid of their ungrateful Spanish guests despite the indecisiveness of their leader, Moctezuma.
- Moreover, Spanish troops had been sent to arrest Cortes for his insubordination since he had been told to limit his mission to exploring the Yucatan Peninsula. This threatened to derail Cortes’s plans so he had to leave Tenochtitlan.
44
How did Cortés solve the problem of his looming arrest
-Cortes described the wealth the he saw in the Aztec capital and he convinced the Spaniards sent to arrest him to stay in Mexico and help him instead.
45
Montezuma end of rule
- In the meantime, the Aztecs rebelled against Montezuma and the Spanish troops that Cortes had left in Tenochtitlan.
- Montezuma was stoned to death by his fellow Aztecs and the Spaniards were forced to retreat to Tlaxcala to reunite with their allies and plan their final showdown against the Aztecs.
46
other than technology what was the biggest help in the eventual defeat of the Aztec capital (other than allies)
-The Spaniards also left the smallpox in the capital of the Aztecs. This illness ravaged the population of Tenochtitlan.
47
other than technology what was the biggest help in the eventual defeat of the Aztec capital (Socioplitical)
-Cortés and his allies fully took advantage of the fact that the Aztecs had been cruel and unpopular rulers with their subjects (the Aztecs ruled over about 6,000,000 to 10,000,000 people in central Mexico). -
Hatred of the Aztecs convinced other natives of Mexico to join Cortes. Hence, Cortes had approximately 200, 000 soldiers to overthrow the Aztecs (he started with only 660 men two years earlier).
48
why were the surrounding populations so unhappy with the Aztecs
- The Aztecs believed that they had to perform sacrifices to make sure that the sun would keep rising. They maintained their empire in a perpetual state of war due to their belief that their gods had an insatiable hunger for human sacrifices.
- The Aztecs could execute up to 5,000 captives per day. The steps of their temple of Tenochtitlan were permanently covered in blood (Levak et. Al., 2006, p.252)
- The Aztecs were feared and loathed by neighboring peoples because of these human sacrifices.
49
describe the conquest of Tenochtitlan
Cortés and his troops were able to conquer Tenochtitlan after a long siege during the summer of 1521.
- They used their canons destroy the city while the Aztecs were dying of smallpox and starvation.
- Cortes`s native allies were eager to finish what the Spaniards had started when they entered the Aztec capital. This source is from a native of Mexico who witnessed the takeover of Tenochtitlan by the Spanish Conquistadors and their native allies: “The cries of the helpless women and children were heart-rending. The Tlaxcalans and the other enemies of the Aztecs revenged themselves pitilessly for old offences and robbed them of everything they could find” Alva Ixtilxochitl, 1521
50
in short and in details what were the principal advantages that led to the conquest of Tenochtitlan
–Cortes and his acolytes were able to overtake the empire of the Aztecs between 1519 and 1523 because of smallpox, their allies, their horses, their metal weapons and their canons.
(Guns, Germs and Steel... and allies) + horses and dogs
51
Fate of the rest of Mexico
-The Spanish conquistadors progressively overtook the rest of Mexico to form the colony of New Spain. They discovered remnants of the Maya Empire such as the site of Chichen Itza in 1532. -The arrival of the Spaniards in 1519 had dire consequences for the natives of Mexico because of diseases, cruelty and exploitation. Their native population declined from 25 to 2 million between the arrival of Cortés (1519) and 1600 (Kreis, 2002).
52
Who conquered the Inca
Francisco Pizarro
53
True or False Cortés and Pizarro led very similar campaigns
- The story of Francisco Pizarro’s conquest is similar to Cortés victory over the Aztecs.
- Pizarro was a distant cousin of Cortes who had moved to Panama after being part of Balboa`s aforementioned expedition.
54
Pizarro Goal and company
- Pizarro landed on the west coast of South America (Peru) in 1532. This was his third attempt to find wealth and glory in this part of the Americas.
- He had 180 men, horses, canons and metal weapons.
55
The socio-political position of the Inca Empire Around the time that Pizarro arrived
- The Incas dominated this part in the Americas since 1438 but they were already weakened by a smallpox pandemic that killed the emperor Huyana Capac in 1528. –His death triggered a civil war between his two sons, Atahualpa and Huascar. Atahualpa and his followers emerged triumphant
- Pizarro’s timing could not have been better. Atahualpa was an inexperienced leader who was facing crises that were weakening his empire (i.e., the smallpox pandemic and the divisive civil war that had just ended).
56
The territorial position of the Inca Empire Around the time that Pizarro arrived
The Incas were still strong. They were able to effectively control territories in the Andes stretching from present-day Colombia to Chile.
-It was the largest empire in the world when Pizarro arrived there in 1532. For example, the empire of the Incas was 5 times larger than the empire of the Aztecs.
57
Inca Empire infrasctructure
-The Inca Empire was also remarkably well-organized. The Incas had an impressive network of pedestrian roads to facilitate interregional trade and communication in the Andes. These rods are still used by locals and foreigner who hike in the Andes
58
Inca Empire technology
-But their military technology was limited. Their weapons were made from stones and wood and they only had an infantry.
59
Initial meeting with Atahualpa (leader of the Incas)
-This [Cajamarca] is where they met Atahualpa. The leader of the Incas refused to convert to Christianity and abandon his beliefs (because the Bible did not speak to him) and he was kidnapped by Pizarro`s troops. Atahualpa had made a mistake by not bringing enough men to protect him from the Conquistadors.
60
the Spanish kidnap of Atahualpa
- Atahualpa proposed a ransom in return for his liberation. The Incas filled the room where he was detained with gold but Pizarro did not keep his promise to release him.
- Pizarro knew that Atahualpa was so respected that nobody else dared to make decisions in the Inca Empire.
61
consequences of the Kidnapping of Atahualpa
-Inca society was paralyzed by fear and Pizarro continued to use the emperor until he was ready to conquer Cuzco, the largest city on the empire of the Incas, in 1534 without facing much resistance.
62
Atahualpa end of rule
-Atahualpa was trialed and condemned to death. He believed that his body needed to remain intact to have an afterlife so he accepted to be baptized in exchange for being strangled to death (instead of being burnt or beheaded by Pizarro’s troops).
63
empty
b
64
How valuable was the conquest of Cuzco (capital of Inca empire)
-The city of Cuzco is 3,000 meters above sea level in the middle of the Andes. Hence, it was not very useful for the Conquistadors (unlike Tenochtitlan) due to its distance from the Pacific Ocean and its high altitude.
65
New Capital of Peru
- Pizarro founded the city of Lima, the capital of Peru where he was assassinated in 1541 during a power struggle with other prominent Spaniards who challenged his authority over Peru.
- Lima is on the Pacific coast and it quickly became an important port when the Spaniards discovered precious metals.
66
Location important resources found by the Spaniards suit à la conquest des Incas
-The mine of Potosi (Bolivia) was especially precious. It contained more silver than the Spaniards could have imagined.
67
Expanse of the Spanish empire suit à la conquest des Incas
Spain continued to expand its Empire into Colombia and Argentina. More than 200,000 Spaniards moved to the Americas during the 16th Century.
-They created the most complex European empire since Ancient Rome. It was an empire that was tightly controlled by Spanish authorities that produced mainly minerals and crops for the Spanish market.
68
true or false the Spaniards conquered all of the Incas with no exceptions
-In the meantime, the Incas who lived in remote areas of the Andes such as Machu Picchu managed to avoid the merciless exploitation of the Spaniards (Machu Picchu is an extremely popular destination despite its remoteness. It was discovered only in 1911 by Hiram Bingham of Yale University).
69
-Finally, the age of discoveries was marked by
the Columbian exchange.
-Contacts with the natives allowed the Europeans to discover new crops such as corn, potatoes, tomatoes, cocoa, peanuts, pumpkins and tobacco (they also got syphilis from the natives). (not lots of sickness cuz not lots of major cities)
-In return, the natives were introduced to deadly European diseases such as smallpox, the plague, influenza… They also discovered firearms, horses, cattle, pigs and rats.
70
latecomers in the race to the Americas.
-The English were latecomers in the race to the Americas.
71
Claims on the americas set in 1493
- In 1493, Spain and Portugal already claimed the entirety of the Western Hemisphere with the Treaty of Tordesillas (that was only one year after Christopher Columbus’ first voyage to the Americas).
- This treaty would allow the Portuguese to settle in Brazil and the Spaniards to conquer the other territories between Mexico and Peru (the treaty was approved by Pope Alexander VI).
72
First English trip to the americas
- In 1497, the Henry VII, the King of England, ignored the treaty of Tordesillas when he sent John Cabot (Giovanni Caboto) to find a northern passage to Asia.
- Cabot failed to find a passage to Asia but he still explored the east coast of Canada. (modern day= Newfoundland)
73
Compare the British conquest in the years between Cabot and their next attempt and others colonial powers or Europe
- England took more than a century to establish a colony after Cabot’s first voyage (the Tudors were too busy with Spain and Ireland to dedicate resources for exploration of new territories).
- In the meantime, the Portuguese settled in Brazil (led by Cabral in 1500), Jacques Cartier claimed Canada for France and the Spanish conquistadors managed to conquer Mexico (Cortes vs. the Aztecs) and Peru (Pizarro vs. the Incas).
- Moreover, the Spaniards quickly moved north. Ponce de |Leon hoped to discover gold and the fountain of youth. He failed but he claimed Florida for Spain in 1513.
74
Ponce de |Leon 1513 conquest of Florida elaborated
- In 1519, Coronado ventured north of the Rio Grande River.
- He hoped to find civilizations as wealthy as the Aztecs and the Incas.
- He was disappointed by the Pueblos. Coronado’s anger led to extreme cruelty (because they did not have gold and they were no sufficiently committed to adopting the Christian beliefs of the Spaniards).
- These failing ventures still led Spain to established minor settlements in Florida (1565) and New Mexico (1598) to consolidate their claims to new territories.
75
The first English attempt to establish a colony in the New World was led by
Sir Walter Raleigh, a friend ;) of Elizabeth I.
76
Sir Walter Raleigh goal
-Raleigh believed that it was essential for England to limit the growth of the Spanish empire in the Americas.
77
First colony attempt by the English
-In 1585, Raleigh tried to settle on Roanoke Island off the coast of present-day North Carolina but many colonists returned home after hostilities with natives of Roanoke (i.e., the Croatoans) and failing to find gold.
78
colony attempt 1.2 by the English
- Britsh settlers returned to Roanoke Island in 1587 but they failed again. England’s war with Spain separated the nascent colony from its motherland.
- The settlers who stayed in Roanoke Island were gone, when desperately needed goods finally arrived from England in 1590 (long after the British navy defeated the Spanish Armada in 1588).
- The fate of the last British settlers of Roanoke Island is still unknown. The “lost colony” remains an unsolved mystery.
79
-Another incentive that would lead the English to intensify their effort to establish colonies in the Americas (economic)
was the widespread idea that their country was overpopulated.
-The English wool industry was booming and landowners were pushing tenants off their estates to replace them with sheep.
The New World was the last hope for many rural paupers living in England.
-Furthermore, the English elite felt that it was under siege because there were too many landless people that were increasingly frustrated in England.
-Many prominent Englishmen such as Richard Hakluyt argued that new colonies would solve a lot of problems for England.
80
other reason which convinced people to leave to the new colony
-Moreover, the virtual monopoly of the Church of England also frustrated many groups of religious dissenters who were hoping to leave England to stop facing persecution.
81
In short all reason for the English to start establishing colonies overseas by the beginning of the 17th Century.
-Therefore, England had good economic(too many poor people) , political (Fuck Spain), social (???) and religious (Fuck Church of England) reasons to start establishing colonies overseas by the beginning of the 17th Century.
82
The first permanent English colony in the Americas
In 1607, Captain John Smith and 105 settlers established Jamestown, (only 38 settlers survived until 1608. Jamestown was named after James I who gave the charter to the settlers).
83
What sort of socio-economic group composed most of the first settlers of Virginia
- Most of the first settlers in Virginia were gentlemen who wanted instant riches. They were not willing to plant crops to insure a dependable food supply for the colony since most of them had never done physical work before.
- The first settlers of Virginia were Anglicans. This was the main religious denomination in England. Thus, they were not persecuted in their homeland and religion was not a factor that led these Englishmen to go to the New World.
84
Location chosen for Jamestown (first Colony)
- The site they selected was on the James River. It was easy to defend but they were close to swamps infested with malarial mosquitoes.
- Furthermore, drinking water was scarce so they suffered from dehydration (and there is also recent evidence that the plague also killed many Virginians).
85
The first years of Jamestown are known as
“the starving time”. This colony was a death trap.
-People continued to arrive from England but the colony was in serious danger of collapsing.
-When the settlers were out of supplies, they had to eat corpses, horses, snakes… John Smith wrote that: one amongst the rest did kill his wife, powdered her, and had eaten part of her before it was knowne, for which hee was executed, as hee well deserved; now whether shee was better roasted, boyled or carbonado’d, I know not, but of such a dish as powdered wife I never heard of. This was that time, which still to this day we called the starving time;
86
The natives who dominated Virginia
the 20,000 Algonquians of the powerful Powhatan confederacy.
87
how did the Virginian Natives react to the JamesTown settlers
-Powhatan, their leader, could crush Jamestown but he probably felt that the English settlers would not be able to stay so he did not bother to destroy the fragile settlement.
88
How did the James Town Settlers interact with the natives
-The desperate settlers were able to use their guns to take food and captives from Powhatan (such as Pocahontas).-
The baptism of Pocahontas and her marriage to John Rolfe, an English settler, improved the relations between their peoples (Rolfe had been the first settler to successfully plant tobacco back in 1612. His marriage to Pocahontas would have been illegal had they live later since interracial marriage were outlawed in Virginia in 1691).
89
event ed to the resumption of hostilities between English & Powhatan confederacy.
-But the death of Powhatan led to the resumption of hostilities
90
hostilities after death of powhatan
-In 1622, the natives killed 347 unsuspecting Virginians during a vicious raid. The colonists retaliated by giving them poisoned wine and burning their corn.
91
Did Virginia continue to suck 4ever
-Virginia became prosperous in the late 1620’s despite the ongoing tension with the natives. Jamestown became a boomtown thanks to indentured servitude and tobacco planting.
92
what are indentured servants
- Indentured servants were Europeans who could not pay for their voyage to Virginia.
- Their trip was paid by a tobacco planter. In exchange, the planter could use the indenture servants for hard labor for a given number of years until their debt was repaid (usually within 5 or 6 years. More than 30 percent of the indentured servants did not live long enough to enjoy freedom in Virginia).
93
Maryland who
- Maryland was granted to Lord Baltimore by Charles I. Lord Baltimore wanted to establish a refuge for his fellow English Catholics.
- In 1634, Leonard Calvert, a brother of Lord Baltimore, established St. Mary’s with 200 settlers.
94
what was Maryland like in the early days
-Maryland never became a safe haven for the Catholics. Tobacco was also the cash crop for this colony.
95
what was Maryland like in the later days (not model times, still colonial era)
- The growing tobacco industry attracted protestant settlers and indentured servants. This undermined Calvert goal of keeping Maryland for Catholics.
- The colony quickly became a carbon copy of Virginia. It was growing quickly but the Catholics were quickly outnumbered and they lost control over their thriving colony.
96
The Settling of New England
-The Pilgrims were the first Europeans to settled permanently in New England when they arrived in in Plymouth in 1620. They wanted to be free from the Anglican Church. They considered that it was still too close to the Catholic Church.
97
Most Pilgrims Street rep
-Most of the Pilgrims were known as separatists in England.
98
What led the Pilgrims to turn their attention to the Americas. versus other protestant countries
- The city of Leiden in the Netherlands had been their first destination when they fled England but they were disappointed.
- They were a religious and linguistic minority. They had a difficult time adjusting in this prosperous Dutch city.
99
What was the mindset of the pilgrims while crossing to the americas.
- The Pilgrims believed in Predestination like John Calvin, the French protestant who established one of the first protestant churches in Geneva, Switzerland.
- Predestination is a religious doctrine that claims that God, before he created the world, had selected every person for either salvation or damnation.
- Moving to the New World gave the Pilgrims a sense that they were on a divine mission to serve God when they left Europe.
100
Describe the crossing pf the Pilgrims from Europe to America
-After a long and challenging crossing on the Mayflower that took two months, 103 Pilgrims eventually settled in Plymouth (they were supposed to go to Virginia but they got lost because of a storm and they ran out of beer. Beer consumption was a gallon per day for every passenger including the children!).
101
Important event which happened aboard the Mayflower
-Before leaving the ship they signed the Mayflower Compact. Which stipulated that they were agreeing to settle a colony together and make it work.
102
why was crossing to America in Fall Fucking Stupid!!!
- Crossing the northern part of the Atlantic Ocean at the beginning of the Fall was a terrible plan because it exposed them to hurricane season.
- Arriving in Plymouth in November also brought challenges. It meant that they would face a long winter without having time to grow crops and build houses.
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first year in New England
-The Pilgrims struggled despite their determination. They lost about 50 people who died from diseases scurvy and pneumonia during the first year (including John Carver, the first governor of the colony).
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Thanksgiving
- Those who survived (harsh first year in New England) expressed their gratitude for their harvest with the first Thanksgiving Day in 1621.
- They also owed gratitude to Samoset and Squanto, their interpreters and advisors that helped the Pilgrims deal with the Wampanoags.
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Wampanoags.
- This group of Native Americans had been seriously weakened by epidemics of European diseases such as smallpox and the plague that had been introduced in England by European fishermen in 1616.
- So the Wampanoags needed help. Approximately 90 percent of them died between 1616 and 1619. They were more affected that than their traditional rivals (i.e., the Narragansett).
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Wampanoags relationship with the pilgrims
- The Pilgrims were weak but the fact that they had European weapons made them a valuable ally for the Wampanoags who had been weakened by the aforementioned pandemic.
- Squanto decided to stay with the Pilgrims because they had settled on the site of the village where he grew up. He showed them how to use fish to fertilize the soil (the Pilgrims also established a beer brewery).
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When did Plymouth become profitable
- The Plymouth colony became profitable only around 1628.
- This success brought more people from England to settle in New England and Plymouth was quickly dwarfed by much larger neighboring colonies.
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Massachusetts
- About 20,000 new settlers arrived in Massachusetts during the 1630’s (these settlers are known as New England’s Generation, entire families were going there on vessels such as the Arabella). (Anderon, 1991).
- These migrants were led by John Winthrop. They were Puritans who wanted to purify the Church of England.
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Pilgrims versus Puritains
Goal and location
- The Pilgrims of Plymouth were separatists who wanted stay as far as possible from the Anglican Church because they believed that it could not be reformed.
- On the other hand, the Puritans went to Massachusetts to create a purified Church that would be a model to follow for the Anglican Church.
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Puritains colony goal
The Puritans were hoping to go back to their homeland. They went to Massachusetts to accomplish an “Errand in the Wilderness” for God. In Boston, they established what they called ``a city upon a hill``.
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what differs Massachusetts from other early colonies
-This colony thrived. Massachusetts did not endure the initial hardships of previous colonies such as Roanoke, Jamestown and Plymouth
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Massachussetts infrastructure
- The authorities of Massachusetts opened large areas to build new towns around Boston to accommodate their fellow Puritans.
- The towns usually had a church, a school, a tavern and plenty of small farms (the climate and soil was not suited for commercial agriculture).
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why were schools important to Puritans
- Establishing school was a priority to teach the Bible to children and protect them from the negative influence of the devil.
- The authorities of Massachusetts imposed universal compulsory education as early as 1642. It was a way to impose conformity and avoid religious and political dissidence in the new colony
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first "American" university
-Harvard had been established in 1636 by John Harvard mainly to train Puritan ministers for the churches of the colony
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Demographics in Puritans communities and New England in general
-The Puritans tended to migrate as family units and the relatively good quality of life in that colony allowed the population to grow naturally (instead of relying on constant immigration from Europe. Life expectancy was significantly higher in New England than in England).
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-The arrival of hordes of settlers in Masschussets led to
the deterioration of the Puritans’ relations with the natives.
-This caused two merciless conflicts: the Pequot War (1637) and King Philip’s War (1675-1676, Philip/Metacom was the chief of the Wampanoags. The colonists loathed Metacom and his head was left on a stick for 25 years!).
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other problems faced by the puritains
-The Puritans did not only struggle with the natives. They also had problems with the dissenters who opposed the elite’s obsession with conformity and purity (the authorities had banned theatres, Christmas and dancing in Massachusetts. That state still has laws that date back to the puritans such the ban on witches and Quakers).
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how did other New England colonies relate to Massachusetts
-The other colonies of New England (Connecticut, Rhode Island and New Hampshire) were offshoots of Massachusetts. -They were established for people who clashed with authorities or groups of Puritans who were simply looking for land to establish new towns.
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Dutch colony in America, who, what, where, when
-In 1609, Dutch investors hired Henry Hudson, an English explorer, to find a northwestern passage to Asia. Hudson explored the river named after him (Samuel de Champlain was nearby exploring Lake Champlain. Hudson also explored Hudson’s Bay).
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when did the dutch investors begin investing in their colonies? whcihc 2
-It was only in 1624 that Dutch investors began to develop this colony by establishing Fort Orange (i.e., Albany) and New Amsterdam on Manhattan Island (Peter Minuit purchased the island for the equivalent of $24 US from the Manhattan natives).
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what was the main economic activity in the 2 dutch American colonies?
-Fur trading with the Iroquois (Mohawks) made this colony very profitable.
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what was the composition of New Amsterdam?
-Like NYC 2day New Amsterdam was a melting pot of peoples from all over the Atlantic world (enslaved Africans, Dutch, Germans, Swedes, Jews…).
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how strongly defended was New Amsterdam?
-But the colony was mismanaged and poorly defended. In 1664, it was easily seized by a British fleet.
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New Amsterdam to New York
-Charles II, the English King, gave this colony to his brother, the Duke of York who convinced most of the Dutch colonists to stay. Dutch heritage still present some names of still found around
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founding of Carolina
-The first settlers arrived in the Carolina low country in 1670 and they founded the city of Charleston in 1680.
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what were Carolina "capitalists" looking for
-Many of them came from Barbados, a prosperous sugar planting English colony in the Caribbean. Thus, the first settlers in Carolina were familiar with slavery (enslaved Africans were widely used in the sugar plantations of Barbados). indogo
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what was Carolina's cash crop
-In 1690, this colony discovered its cash crop, rice. It might have been introduced by the slaves because rice was grown in Africa. Indigo also became an important product for the growth of Carolina. (most rice we eat comes fro the southern united states, mostly Texas)
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Carolina later years
-Within 20 years, Carolina was on its way to becoming the wealthiest colony and the enslaved Africans represented 70 percent of the population (Wood, 1974). The planters of South Carolina also enslaved natives such as the Creeks and Cherokees (South Carolina and North Carolina were separated in 1729).
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Pennsylvania founding
-In 1681, William Penn, a young Quaker with good connections convinced King Charles II to give him a colony. (rare usually Quaker poorer than average enlish)
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Notable city in Pennsylvania
-Penn quickly founded Philadelphia. He wanted a safe haven for his fellow Quakers (or Friends).
the largest cities in the colonies for a good while
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why did Europeans dislike Quakers
-The Quakers were constantly persecuted in Europe because they were pacifists, they rejected oaths, they did not respect customary deference to powerful people and their Christian beliefs placed little importance on the Bible.
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other Quaker Beliefs
- The Quakers also believed that God’s spirit is present in every human soul. This Inner Light is as important as the Bible for them. Fleabag
- Most Quakers also did not believe in divine punishment and strict religious rituals.
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Penn relationship with natives
-Penn made everything possible to ensure a harmonious rapport with the Delaware natives (signing a treaty, paying for the land…).
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Pennsylvania later years
- But Penn quickly lost control over his noble experiment. -His colony attracted migrants from across Europe. They flocked there to start their lives anew.
- Pennsylvania became renowned for being the “best poor man’s country” because of its very fertile soil and affordable land. (even now suburb in Philadelphia called gemran town)
- In 1700, Pennsylvania already had more than 250,000 inhabitants and it exported agricultural surpluses to Europe and the Caribbean.
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origin rational thought perood
-The 16th and 17th centuries were a revolutionary period for science. It marked the beginning of rational thought in Western science.
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What was science like in the middle ages
-Before this scientific revolution the Ancient scientific theories of Aristotle, Ptolemy and Galen had to be memorized. The investigation was not encouraged in European universities. Scholars who were too curious risks rejection, mockery and even condemnation.
memorize and not question what the greeks used 2 do
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What religious climate was the scientific revolution taking place in
The scientific revolution also took place in a period of religious intolerance. This intolerance was exemplified by the Spanish Inquisition (1478-1834) and the St. Bartholomew Massacre (1572) as well as religious wars between Catholics and Protestants.
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what was the opinion of the political leader of scientific discoveries
Many religious and political leaders regarded scientific discoveries as a form of heresy in this tense context (especially in Catholic countries such as Spain, Italy and France).
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did intolerance squash the scientific revolution
- But by the middle of the 16th Century, some European scholars courageously began to question the scientific theories of the aforementioned ancient authors.-The scientists of the 16th and 17th centuries discredited established and erroneous theories in fields such as astronomy, physics and medicine by using innovative approaches and instruments such as telescopes, thermometers and barometers: ``Astronomy, chemistry, biology, and physics all had their modern origins in the seventeenth century.`` (Kishlansky et al., 2007, p. 343).
- This revolution triggered an acceleration of scientific innovations that has been uninterrupted since the mid-16th Century.
- It marks a sharp contrast with the medieval period which saw few innovations between the 5th and 15th Centuries.
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main legacy scientifc revolution
-Old assumptions needed to be tested by increasingly incredulous scientists: The main legacy of the period is the idea that science should not stand still, that it should change and seek innovation.
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why was it so hard to create knowledge in the middle ages
intolerant climate and no way to get in touch with other thinkers or spread knowledge
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the dominant view of universe b4 16th century
- Before the 16th Century, the dominant view of the universe was that planet Earth was the stationary center of the universe and heavenly spheres orbited it. -This is known as the geocentric (earth-centred) conception of the universe.
- The geocentric conception of the universe is erroneous belief dated back to the 2nd Century. It was Ptolemy (geographer, astronomer and mathematician) that had argued that the sun and the planets orbited around the Earth.
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what view of the universe did the church support why
-The geocentric conception of the universe is erroneous belief dated back to the 2nd Century. It was Ptolemy (geographer, astronomer and mathematician) that had argued that the sun and the planets orbited around the Earth.
The Catholic Church also relied on a few passages of the Old Testament that claimed that the Earth stands firm since its creation by God and shall never move:
Chronicles 16:30
tremble before him, all earth; yea, the world stands firm, never to be moved.
Psalms 93:1
The Lord reigns; he is robbed in majesty; the lord is robbed, he is girded with strength. Yea, the world is established; it shall never be moved.
Psalms 96:10
Say among the nations, "The Lord reigns! Yea, the world is established, it shall never be moved; he will judge the peoples with equity."
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l explain the Christianised Ptolemaic view of the universe
- Therefore, the cosmos was a divinely ordered place: By placing humanity, the Earth, at the center of the universe, Ptolemy supported the Biblical understanding of the universe.
- Thus, it became a dogma that working outward from the still Earth, eight perfect spheres that were immune from decay followed each other in this order: the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn and the stars (Uranus was discovered only in 1781 and Neptune in 1846. Pluto was discovered in 1930 but it is not a planet).
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where was heaven in the catholic - Ptolemaic model
Heaven was beyond these spheres. It was the location of God and all the saved souls.
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-Nicolaus Copernicus
(1473-1543) was a polish astronomer and mathematician. He had studied in the Italian universities of Padua and Bologna.
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a poetic way of describing the universe for the Christians
-This Christianized Ptolemaic view of the universe was unquestionable: ``The Copernician system offended the medieval sense that the universe was an affair between God and man. ``
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-Nicolaus Copernicus book
- In 1543, shortly before his death, he published his masterpiece, On the Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres.
- It was in this groundbreaking book that he exposed his heliocentric (sun-centred) conception of the universe.
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why did Copernicus not share his theory before this
- Copernicus had developed this theory as early as 1514 but he was afraid of being persecuted by religious authorities and being mocked by his colleagues.
- 2 attack ptolomy = attack church
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Copernicus claims
- Copernicus claimed that the sun was the motionless center of the universe.
- He also argued that the planets revolved around it in the order of Mercury, Venus, the Earth, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn.
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what did Copernicus base his theory
He based his explanations on the daily rotation of the Earth on its axis and the annual journey of the earth around the Sun. Therefore, the Earth could not possibly be the center of the universe.
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why Copernicus significant
-Copernicus took the first step towards the destruction of the long-established geocentric system supported by Ptolemy and the Church.
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initial reaction towards Copernicus book
-However, the immediate reactions to Copernicus’ research were limited. The masses of non-specialists were not ready to grasp his complex theories and took little notice of his work.
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who came after Copernicus
The German mathematician Johannes Kepler’s book The New Astronomy (1609) on the motion of planets supported Copernicus`s geocentric theory but Kepler`s work relied on mathematical evidence.
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how did Kepler compare to Copernicus
-It was even more complex than Copernicus`s work. It was technical and mathematical so it did not get the attention it deserved when it was published (Kepler agreed with Copernicus that Earth and the other planets orbit around the sound but he contradicted Copernicus by showing the planets do not move around the Sun in a circular fashion. He proved that the rotation of the planets of the solar system is elliptical).
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Galileo
-It was Galileo who confirmed and refined Copernicus’ findings and popularized them only one year after Kepler published The New Astronomy. -Galileo was a mathematician. He was a professor at the Italian universities of Pisa and Padua (Copernicus’s alma mater). He is considered as the founder of modern astronomy.
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Galileo first what
-Galileo innovated by being the first European to use a telescope to make systematic observations of the heavens.
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Where did Galileo get his telescope
-He made his own telescope when he learned that a Dutchman called Hans Lippershey had invented this device by placing two lenses at opposite ends of a metal tube in 1608. This innovation revolutionized astronomy.
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what was significant about Galileo's use of the telescope
-Galileo saw what no man had seen before him. The telescope exposed things that had been previously invisible to humankind
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how did Galileo relate to Copernicus
- Galileo was able to confirm Copernicus’s argument. Copernicus had relied on his theoretical understanding of the movement of stars more than any direct observation.
- Galileo`s observation added credibility to Copernicus’s findings. Galileo`s telescope allowed him to see what Copernicus wish he could have seen.
-Galileo made several other stunning observations with his telescope such seeing mountains on the moon, spots on the sun, four satellites around Jupiter, the rings of Saturn…
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How did Galileo relate to the catholic chruch
-Galileo’s observations debunked the dogmatic belief that the other planets were perfect and immutable spheres that had a different composition than the Earth. The Catholic Church had argued that the other planets had a more perfect shape than Earth because they were closer to God.
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Galileo book
-Galileo’s observations were published in The Starry Messenger (1610). -This book confirmed and popularized Copernicus’ heliocentric theory and it stated that the universe was an unspiritual world of matter.
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Church react to Copernicus book
- In 1615, Galileo was accused of heresy for contradicting the Catholic Church. Galileo`s accusers refused to look at his telescope.
- They argued that a man could not contradict God and that scripture clearly indicates that the Earth is motionless.
- Galileo attempts to prove that he was right exacerbated the anger of religious authorities who saw Galileo`s defiance like a disrespect of their interpretation of scripture.
- Galileo was warned to stop presenting Copernicus`s heliocentric theory like an undeniable fact.
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Galileo end of life
- In 1633, the Roman Inquisition accused Galileo of teaching Copernicus’s theory.
- Galileo was intimidated into recanting his “mistakes”: ``I must altogether abandon the false opinion that the sun is the center of the world and immovable…and that I must not hold, defend, or teach in any way whatsoever, verbally or in writing, the said doctrine`` Galileo, 1633.
- Galileo was also placed on house arrest and he could not teach or write until he died in 1642 (ironically Isaac Newton was born in 1643 to add to Galileo’s findings).
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why were the religious authorities not able to put the genie back in the bottle.
- The Roman inquisition intimidated Italian scholars but it did not affect scholars of Protestant countries who were not intimidated by the Papal authority.
- Moreover, by the 17th century European rulers realized that scientific progress could give them a military or economic edge over other kingdoms.
- Many European monarchs disagreed with the Roman inquisition by supporting scientists instead of censoring them.
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what did the interest of European rulers for science create
- This led to the Creation of the English Royal Society of London by Charles II (1662) and the Royal Society of Science in Paris by Louis XIV (1665).
- These societies helped scientists make innovative research. It also allowed them to share their results with their colleagues and publish their findings.
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unlike the previous astronomers what did Newton benefit from
-Isaac Newton, a mathematics professor from Cambridge University, was not censored by the Anglican Church and was a member of the Royal Society of London.
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Newton book
-Newton`s classic book Principia (1687) established him as the greatest mind of the Scientific Revolution.
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what peaked Newton's curiosity and launched his theory
- Newton had been intrigued by bright comets that had crossed the European skies in 1680 and 1682 (it was a comet that kick-statrted his research on gravity instead of a falling apple).
- It led Newton to focus on the movement of objects in space and on Earth because he saw that forces invisible to the naked eye dictated how objects move in the universe.
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-In Principia Newton explained...
- the universal law of gravity.
-He used mathematical by inventing calculus to provide evidence that explains the motion of everything on Earth and in space from falling apples to comets.
-It also explains how planets gravitate around the Sun and why planets don’t fall like apples from the trees if they do not have anything to hold them. His theory also explains how gravity gives weight to physical objects on Earth.
Giant leap in science
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significance of Newton
- Newton’s brilliance led to a breakthrough that made many scientists believe that they were living in a scientific golden age.
- They developed an even more confident and optimistic view of the potential of humans to use reason to provide answers to the most challenging questions.
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what was medicine like in the medieval ages
The field of medicine had made very little progress in Medieval Europe. The theories of the Greek physician Galen went unchallenged until the 16th Century.
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why was medicine so slow to progress in the medieval period
-This is mainly due to the Catholic Church’s condemnation of the dissection of human bodies. Dissections were considered sinful and European physicians were sternly urged not to open human bodies.
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-Andreas Vesalius vs Galen research methods
- Andreas Vesalius and some of his fellow students dared to use bodies of execution victims from Paris to see what was inside the human body.
- Vesalius was fascinated by what he saw because it seemed to contradict the theories of Galen that were taught by his professors (Galen had practice dissection on apes).
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?
-Vesalius moved to Padua (Italy) to practice medicine in 1537 where a local judge willingly allowed him to use the bodies of executed criminals.
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Vesalius conclusions
- Vesalius was able to assemble human skeletons and he had a number of bodies sufficient to start drawing credible conclusions that would contradict established beliefs on how that human body functions.
- Vesalius lengthy and detailed description and drawings of the organs of human bodies gave birth to the field of anatomy.
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Vesalius book
His findings allowed him to write On the Fabric of the Human Body (1543). He triggered a new era of medicine with his pioneering work on human anatomy (it was published the same year as Copernicus’s book).
-Vesalius lengthy and detailed description and drawings of the organs of human bodies gave birth to the field of anatomy.
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how did Vesalius inspire other thinkers
-Vesalius inspired William Harvey to focus his anatomical research of the circulation of blood. Harvey wrote On the Motion of the Heart and Blood (1628).
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William Harvey main claim
- Harvey showed how the heart distributes blood through the other vital organs (i.e., the brain, kidneys, the liver, the lungs…) and the entire body by meticulously studying veins and arteries of humans and many animal species.
- Harvey`s dissection convincingly showed that blood is not consumed by the human heart. The heart is pumping the blood that circulates freely through vital organs and veins.
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why was Harvey significant
- The research of Vesalius and Harvey contradicted Galen who explained illnesses by corruption of the blood which led to the dangerous and widespread practice of bloodletting patients to cleanse them from their illnesses.
- Galen and his supporters had argued that the body consumes blood and the illnesses can be cause by the excessive production of blood by the body which caused imbalances with other fluids in the body (bile and phlegm). This made bloodletting necessary in some cases.
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Harvey in short
- Harvey`s dissection convincingly showed that blood is not consumed by the human heart. The heart is pumping the blood that circulates freely through vital organs and veins.
- Harvey also argued that bloodletting was dangerous for the health of sick patients because it can weaken them even more.
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How did Copernicus, Vesalius and Galileo relate to the scientific method
- Copernicus, Vesalius and Galileo made amazingly important scientific discoveries before 1620. Doubts led them to challenge the religious authorities and their peers.
- Their works were inspired by doubts but they did not follow a systematic method to make their conclusions which exposed their theories to intense questioning and criticism.
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most important legacy of the scientific revolution
-The scientific method that was developed after 1620 was one of the most important legacies of the scientific revolution. It allowed scientists to achieve results that were reliable and repeatable.
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what is the basis of the scientific method
- The pioneers of the scientific method argue that scientific research must not start with certainties, but with doubts.
- Starting with certainties ought to be avoided because it can lead scientists to distort what they observe to make it fit with their pre-established certainties (for example Galileo was convinced that Copernicus was correct before he made his observations with his telescope).
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scientific method in the world 2day
- This systematic method remains the standard method used by scientists for collecting and analyzing evidence.
- Scientific researchers who do not follow this procedure carefully risk seeing the conclusions contested by their peers if they do not carefully record all the steps of their experimentation.
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Francis Bacon argued
- Francis Bacon argued that inductive reasoning was the best way to test hypotheses. Scientists should make systematic observations and learn strictly from what they saw.
- Being able to test the same hypothesis repeatedly and obtaining the same result (results are repeatable and reliable) is the best way to develop reliable scientific theories according to Bacon. He also made a strong case for the practical uses of scientific discoveries and theories.
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Bacon book
-In 1620 he published Novum Organum in which he made the case for rigorous experimentation: ``Truth is to be sought not in the felicity of any age, which is an unstable thing, but in the light of nature and experience, which is eternal.`` Francis Bacon , 1620
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How did Bacon compare to renaissance thinkers
-Therefore, Bacon contradicted the humanist scholars of the Renaissance because truths discovered through observation and experimentation is unquestionable truth unlike explanations provided by Ancient authors such as Ptolemy and Galen who were admired by the humanists.
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other people also contributed significantly to the scientific revolution.
René Descartes
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Descartes system
-Descartes practiced systematic doubt. He questioned everything except his own existence because he had the ability to doubt: `` I think, therefore I am`` René Descartes.
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starting point of knowldge descartes
-Descartes believed that scientists needed to question and test established beliefs. The starting point of real knowledge for Descartes is always doubt.
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Descartes books
-In his book Discourse on Methods (1637) Descartes decided to set aside everything he had learned and could not be proven without a doubt and start anew.
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how did Descartes think we should seek knowledge
-He was only left with doubt. He argued that knowledge must be sought with an unbiased mind and that reason is the main source of knowledge.
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Descartes and God
-Descartes had a mechanistic understanding of the world. Therefore, God was absent from his attempts to understand the world.
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Descartes and math
-He was fascinated by geometry and he firmly believed that mathematics were a very powerful tool to discovered truths about nature (Newton proved him right a few decades later).
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Descartes and Bacon significance
-Descartes and Bacon inspired future generations of scientists as the division between religion and science led to the growth of rational though: ``By the beginning of the eighteenth century, modern science became an essential component of Western culture. It also laid the foundation of the Enlightenment, another distinctively Western phenomenon. `` (Levak et al., 2007, p.253)
