Chapter 6 to 8 Flashcards
(207 cards)
1
Q
Describe the witch hunts in two sentences (who, what, where, when)
A
-Witch-hunts were common in Western Europe between 1400 and 1800. Around 50,000 people were burned at the stake for “sympathizing with the devil” (Foner, 2009, p. 105). Most of these witch-hunts took place in the 17th Century.
2
Q
Trigger witch craze
A
- In 1486, the publication of the book Malleus Maleficarum (i.e., The hammer against the witch) by the German inquisitor Heinrich Kramer is often regarded as the event that triggered this era of witch craze.
- Kramer urged his readers to do everything possible to accuse, arrest, convict and execute witches in their community.
3
Q
who supported the hammer against the witch
A
-This popular book quickly enjoyed the support of the Pope Innocent III.
4
Q
-The book [the hammer against the witch] described signs to detect witches:
A
1-Renunciation of faith.
2-devotion of body and soul to the service of evil.
3-being able to shift their shape.
4-being able to fly and to use objects to perform magic rituals.
5
Q
were women or men “more likely” to BECOME witches
A
-Kramer also warned that women were more easily tempted to follow the devil because women are more stupid, fickle, light-headed, weaker and more carnal than men. (Russell, 1981, p. 79).
6
Q
other witchcraft book
A
-Other books on witchcraft such as Daemonology by King James I of England on witchcraft also portrayed women as more likely to be tempted by the devil.
Therefore, women were more likely of being accused of witchcraft than men.
7
Q
were women or men more likely to be ACCUSED OF witchcraft
A
-Geoffrey Scarre (1987) determined that women represented over 90 of the people of faced witchcraft trials in cities that experienced large witchcraft crises such as Basel, Switzerland and Essex, England (p. 25).
8
Q
What kind of women were accused of witchcraft
A
-Most of the women accused of witchcraft were independent women who deviated from their traditional gender roles by owning land, being outspoken, doing business, not going to church…
9
Q
Did the Protestants join in this witchcraft craze and hod does this figure in the causes of the witch trials
A
- By the beginning of the 17th Century the Catholics and Protestants disagreed on many points. However, the belief in witchcraft remained widespread in Europe after the Protestant Reforms.
- In fact, the intense religious tensions caused by the reforms and the growth of capitalism in Europe are mentioned by historians to explain the spectacular growth of witchcraft accusations in the 17th Century (Russell, 1981, p. 72).
10
Q
How did Protestantism contribute to the growth of witchcraft accusation
A
- The rise of Protestantism and capitalism divided communities and threatened established communal values across tightly knitted villages across Europe.
- This was because capitalism and Protestantism ended the lack of social mobility and the religious unity that had marked medieval Europe.
11
Q
Give an example of how large scale the witch craze had become in the 17th century
A
-Some cities such as Cologne, Germany developed large infrastructures such as prisons and torture chambers exclusively to deal with witches. This particular city condemned 600 people to death for witchcraft during the early 17th century (Russell, 1981, p. 86).
12
Q
wat is the basis for the belief on witches that banded Protestants and Catholics together
A
-This was made possible because the belief that people could do evil deeds for the devil in exchange for riches or healing powers was accepted by both Catholics and Protestants.
13
Q
why were witches killed so quickly??
A
-Thus, political and religious authorities had to move swiftly when a member of their community was suspected of doing the devil`s work in their town. Accusation often led to executions for the sake of the community. no corruption
14
Q
What would usually trigger a witch craze
A
-Suspected witches also served as convenient scapegoats when the political, religious and medical authorities failed to offer plausible explanations to mysterious events such as epidemics, miscarriages, premature deaths, storms, death of livestock or a poor harvest.
15
Q
what kind of technics were used for the conviction of witches
A
-The accused were often tortured and forced to admit that they were guilty of engaging in sinful activities with the devil such as dancing, feasting and even having sexual relations with the devil.
16
Q
Example of a woman convicted with “Bad” evidence
A
- For example, in 1652 Suzanne Gaudry, a French woman, was accused of witchcraft.
- She admitted to the following devilish deeds after being stretched upon the torture rack:
Suzanne Gaudry confesses that she is a witch, that she had given herself to the devil, that she had renounced God…that she has cohabited with the devil and that she been to dances.. -Gaudry was also accused of causing the death of the livestock of her neighbour. She was strangled and burned to death. Her ashes were buried in a nearby forest.
17
Q
which country first ended the wich trials
A
-In 1687, Louis XIV banned trials for witchcraft in France. Accusations began to decline quickly in other European kingdoms.
18
Q
How did the witch trial in Salem figure in the Witch Craze “climate”
A
-Thus, the witch craze of 1692 in Salem Village, Massachusetts was one of the last major cases. It caused 19 deaths.
19
Q
Define absolutism
A
Absolutism means that the ultimate authority is solely in the hands of a monarch who justifies his/her position by claiming that he/she has a divine right to rule.
-Hence, absolute monarchs owed an explanation to nobody except God himself. Criticizing an absolute monarch was like criticizing God`s will.
20
Q
Why were rulers now referring to absolutims
A
-This approach was commonly used by the European rulers of the 17th Century. The absolute rulers centralized power within their kingdoms and they greatly enhance royal authority to a level that Europe had not seen in many centuries.
21
Q
how did monarchs achieve this shift to absolutism
A
-The absolute monarchs achieved this by taking measures such as creating permanent armies, banning private armies and fortresses, funding scientific academies, controlling trading companies and wrestling control over justice and taxation away from the nobles.
22
Q
Ultimate Goal of absolutism
A
-The absolute rulers tried to have absolute control over legislation, taxation, justice and the army. They made systematic attempts to erode the traditional powers and the privileges of the nobility (i.e. the landowning aristocrats).
23
Q
France and absolutism which monarch, which dinasty
A
- Bourbon kings who ruled France between 1589 and 1792 embodied Absolutism in the 17th Century.
- Louis XIV (1643-1715), the Sun King, was the finest example of an absolute monarch.
24
Q
Louis XIV early life
A
- He was only 5 years old when he inherited the throne from Louis XIII in 1643.
- His mother Anne (Austrian) and Cardinal Mazarin (Italian), the prime minister, were the rulers during his regency (regents were adults who governed a kingdom when the monarch was just a child).
25
La Fronde
- The French nobles wanted to limit the powers of their young king. But the regents refused to make compromises. This caused La Fronde (1648-1653). The Regents were particularly unpopular due to the fact that they were both foreigners.
- This was a coup d’état that forced Louis XIV and his mother to leave their palace. This was a traumatic event for Louis XIV. He never forgave the French nobles. He spent the rest of his reign taking measures to diminish the power of the French nobility.
26
La Fronde's success?
-The Fronde failed because of the lack of popular support. This allowed Louis XIV and his regents to regain power.
27
what position did Louis XIV abolish
-In 1661, Cardinal Mazarin died and Louis XIV did not appoint a new prime minister.
28
What was Louis XIV goal/view of himslef
-Louis XIV wanted to make sure that everything would revolve around him. He wanted to be the “Sun King”, the source of light and admiration of all his French subjects
29
What did Louis XIV replace the position of prime minister with
Instead of appointing a new prime minister, Louis XIV surrounded himself with competent advisors such as Jean-Baptiste Colbert, who was his Controller General of finance. Colbert was an advocate of mercantilism.
(Valued skill over nobility - goes against tradition )
30
mercantilism
-Mercantilism is an economic theory that argues that the government should play a large economic role by taking measures such as granting monopolies on the production and importation of products.
31
How did the french government apply mercantilism
- It is also an economic theory that held that the volume of trade does not change.
- Thus, the governments had to encourage exports and discourage imports; especially by using tariffs, subsidies and taxes if it wanted to become wealthier.
32
Thing Louis XIV is most known for
-In 1669, Louis XIV ordered the construction of the Palace of Versailles in a forested area south of Paris. This is where the French monarchs used to go hunt.
33
What was the old french palace
-It replaced the Palais des Tuileries, the traditional residence of French kings in Paris.
34
describe Versail
- Versailles became the most opulent European royal palace when Louis XIV moved there in 1682.
- The new palace had 700 rooms. It was big enough for 20,000 guests and employees of the French king. The other European monarchs were jealous (Brinkley, 2005, p. 79).
35
goal of Versail
- According to Louis XIV, distracting the nobles with hunting parties and balls was the best way of making them powerless (Louis XIV wanted to keep his friends close and his enemies even closer).
- Louis XIV entertained his guests from the nobility in his opulent palace while he was taking all the decisions with his intendants. The intendants were educated advisors of the king. They gave him advice. Previous French kings had traditionally picked their advisors amongst the most powerful families of the French nobility even if they were incompetent. Louis XIV picked competency ahead of social rank when he selected his advisors.
36
Did Louis XIV make smart ruling choices
-The best advisors still could not prevent Louis XIV from making costly mistakes for France.
37
what would make you shit your pants in the court of Louis the XIV
-Louis XIV had many means of giving his orders. He could use his Lettres de Cachet to inform any of his subjects of harsh royal decisions such as incarceration or deportation without a trial.
38
edict
-Royal decisions that affected the entire kingdom of Louis XIV were called edict.
39
major mistake Louis XIV
- In 1685, Louis XIV revoked the Edict of Nantes that guaranteed religious tolerance in France since 1598. The Edict of Nantes had been promulgated by Henry IV, the grandfather of Louis XIV. -By promulgating the Edict of Fontainebleau Louis XIV imposed Catholicism as the only legal religion in France.
- He argued that the Huguenots (i.e., French Protestants) were bad for the unity of his kingdom. Protestant churches and schools were closed and Protestants were rebaptized to confirm their new Catholic faith.
40
edict of Fontainebleau consequences
-Approximately 200,000 Huguenots fled France. Many took their skills and fortunes to Protestant kingdoms and others crossed the Atlantic to settle in New York, Boston and Charleston, South Carolina. Henry Laurens, a wealthy slave trader and rice planter from South Carolina, was the grandson of a Huguenots. He actively participated in the American Revolution.
41
art under Louis XIV
- Louis XIV was also a patron for the artists of his kingdom. His rule was marked by a golden age of theatre in France with playwrights such as Molière and Racine.
- France became culturally dominant in Europe under Louis XIV.
42
what was happening in Spain at the time of Louis XIV
-However, Louis XIV's attempts to ensure the permanent political hegemony of France over Europe were costly failures even if he did install a member of the Bourbon family on the throne of Spain. This gain was part of the Treaty of Utrecht of 1713 that ended the War of Spanish Succession (the members of the present-day Royal Family of Spain are descendants of Louis XIV).
43
France after Louis XIV
- The excessive expenses of the Louis XIV ruined and weakened France. This was an unbearable burden for his successors (Louis XV and Louis XVI) who were unable to maintain France`s hegemonic position in Europe.
- v expensive lifestyle
44
other countries where there was successful an absolutism rule
-Russia was another kingdom where the powers of the monarchs were nearly unlimited during the 17th century.
45
first Tsar of Russia
-The first Tsar (or czar) of Russia was Ivan the Terrible (1547-1598).
46
Ivan the Terrible
- He was the Prince of Muscovy and he managed to turn his principality into an enormous kingdom.
- Ivan also had a volatile temper and he mercilessly crushed all his opponents. He even murdered his son during an argument.
47
end of Ivan Terrible rule
-In 1598, the absence of an heir to succeed Ivan the Terrible led to a long Russian civil war called the Time of Troubles.
48
New Tsar after Ivan the terrible
-After 15 years of instability, Mikhail Romanov was appointed to become the new tsar.
49
Romanov dynasty
-His dynasty, the Romanovs, ruled Russia from 1613 to 1917. Peter the Great (1689-1725), was the most influential ruler of this dynasty.
50
Peter the great early life
- He inherited the throne when he was only a child so he was also limited by regents until 1696.
- Peter the Great was a 6’9 colossus who was also an absolute monarch.
- His size and energy were intimidating and he dictated the reforms that would modernize Russia during his long rule: ``Peter the Great hit Muscovy with tremendous impact. To many of his contemporaries, he appeared as either a virtually superhuman hero or the Antichrist. `` (Riasanovsky, 1977, p. 264).
51
Peter the great's relationship to other European countries
- In 1697 and 1698 Peter the Great visited England, Prussia and the Netherlands. He developed an admiration for European culture and his trip gave him many ideas to reform his vast kingdom.
- Peter the Great wanted to Europeanize Russia (i.e., make it look more European).
52
what was Russia like b4 Peter the Great
-Russia was almost entirely dependent on agriculture, literacy was very low and it was far behind the rest of Europe in terms of arts, sciences and military technology.
53
peter the great goal 4 Russia
–Peter the Great wanted to make Russia strong, modern and more open to the world.
-To do this, Peter the Great imposed sweeping reforms: ``he wanted to Westernize and modernize all the Russian government. Society, life and culture`` (Riasanovsky, 1977, p.251).
54
Russian imposed fashion changes
- The Russian women had to stop wearing veils and they could no longer be forced into getting married.
- As for the men, they had to shave their long beards, cut their long coats, start playing cards, stop spitting and stop scratching themselves during meals.
55
How mandatory were these fashion changes
-Failure to comply meant having to pay severe fines (Peter was so obsessed with these measures that he hired tailors and barbers when had held events at his palace. He even shaved many of his guests himself).
56
Socio-geographical changes pt the great
- His most ambitious goal was to “open a window to the west”.
- He believed that his capital, Moscow, was too far from the rest of Europe.
- In 1703, he began the construction a new capital, St. Petersburg (it became the capital of Russia in 1712).
57
a consequence of wanting a capital change
-This dream to have a new capital and an ice-free port on the Baltic Sea caused a war against Sweden.
58
Sweden v Russia
-Peter’s troops triumphed after 20 years (1701-1721). The Swedes failed to invade Russia in 1708.
Russia became dominant power in Europe
59
What were the socio-political consequences of the victory of Russia over Sweden?
-This consolidated Peter the Great`s image of strength. It also confirmed Russia’s status as the strongest kingdom of northern Europe and it triggered the decline of Sweden:
``the resulting Treaty of Nystadt meant that Russia became firmly established on the Baltic, acquiring its essential window on Europe and that in fact, it replaced Sweden as the dominant power in the north of the continent.``(Riasanovsky, 1977, p. 249).
-Peter the Great declared that Russia was an empire in 1721 as soon as he officially won his war against Sweden.
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Economic consequences st petersburg
- Having a port on the Baltic also helped Peter the Great diversify the economy of Russia.
- Demand for Russian mineral resources grew quickly during the 18th century. Mining still remains a major industry in Russia today.
-St. Petersburg was strategically located near the swamps where the Neva Rivers meets the Baltic Sea. It rapidly grew into a major city despite the fact that it was built in an area that is vulnerable to floods.
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How was St-Petersburg built
- This new Russian emperor hired Italian architects to give a distinctively European style to St. Petersburg, his new imperial capital.
- Building this city and the frantic pace imposed by Peter the Great required the cheap labour of serfs. More than 25,000 serfs died during the construction of the new imperial capital of Russia (Furtado, 2012, p. 388).
62
what were power struggles like in England at the time France and Russia were living under absolutism rule
ignore
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king after Elizabeth I
- In 1603, Elizabeth I died without an heir. This caused the end of the Tutor Dynasty. Elizabeth I was replaced by her cousin, James I. He was also the King of Scotland.
- This marked the return of the Stuart dynasty in England from 1603 to 1689. Their repeated attempts to impose absolutism on their English subjects were ultimately unsuccessful.
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James I relationship 2 religion
-James I also became the head of the Anglican Church when he replaced Elizabeth I. James I had a Catholic wife but he had no desire to change the moderate protestant nature of the Anglican Church.
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Catholics reaction to James I's stance on Protestantism
- This bitterly disappointed the Catholics of England who had been marginalized during Elizabeth I`s long rule.
- They plotted to assassinate their new monarch by hiding a great quantity of gunpowder in the cellar of Parliament.
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gunpowder plot dénouement
Their Gunpowder plot was betrayed and 11 conspirators were executed for trying to blow up Parliament during a visit of James I.
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what did James I think about the limits of power in England?
- James I was not used to dealing with a parliament. He had ruled Scotland as an absolute ruler but the English had a tradition of limiting the authority of their monarch that dated back to the Magna Carta (1215).
- James I quickly expressed his views of his new role as King of England: ``monarchy is the supremest thing upon earth; for kings are…God`s lieutenants upon earth, and sit upon God`s throne``
- He continued by saying that kings: ``make and unmake their subjects…judges over all their subjects and in all causes and yet accountable to none but God only.`` James I, 1604
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How productive was James I
-His inability to negotiate with the parliament prevented him from having funds to finance major projects and wars. England was in a political dead-end during the 22 years of James I's reign.
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James I succession
-James I died in 1625. He was replaced by his son Charles I. The feuds with the parliament quickly resumed.
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Charles the I and Parliament
- In 1641, Charles I had to deal with instability in Scotland and Ireland. He asked the parliament to form an army.
- The parliament refused to give an army to Charles I who had absolutist views. But Charles I ignored the parliament and he mounted an army anyway.
71
how did the PArliemtn react to what they thought was tyrannical rule
- The parliament reacted by forming the New Model Army. Oliver Cromwell quickly emerged as the leader of this army.
- The parliament reacted by forming the New Model Army. Oliver Cromwell quickly emerged as the leader of this army.
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Charles I end of rule
- Charles I asked for peace in 1648. He would soon regret his decision.
- In 1649, Charles I was trialled for treason. He was still the King of Scotland but the Scots who tried to save him were stopped by Cromwell.
- Charles I was declared guilty of treason and he was beheaded.
73
how did different parties react to this beheading
- This execution shocked people across Europe due to the widespread belief in Absolutism outside of England.
- This did not bother the Parliament who abolished the monarchy. England temporarily became a Commonwealth (i.e., a republic).
74
what new position did Cromwell take on?
-Cromwell was still the head of the New Model Army and he quickly became frustrated by the Parliament. In 1653, he disbanded Parliament and he became the Lord Protector.
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how did Cromwell stay in power so long
-Cromwell managed to eliminate the king and the parliament within 4 years! He managed to stay in power by handsomely rewarding the generals of the New Model Army.
76
what was Cromwell's rule like
-Cromwell also imposed his Puritan values on his English subjects by banning Christmas, theatres, pubs and make-up.
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Cromwell succession
- He died in 1658 and he was briefly replaced by his incompetent son Richard (he was nicknamed Queen Dick).
- Richard Cromwell did not have the strength to impose the unpopular rules passed by his father and monarchy was quickly restored in 1659.
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Cromwell 2 succession
-Charles II was the successor of Charles I restored the Stuart dynasty. He was in the mood for revenge. He ordered that Oliver Cromwell`s body be removed from his grave and hung.
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what was a major event of Charles II's rule
-It was also during Charles II`s rule that a great fire ravaged the city of London in 1666.
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Major "policy" implemented by Charles II
- Habeas Corpus forbade arbitrary, secretive and preventive detentions. Thereafter, nobody could be imprisoned without knowing the charge and without a trial. Habeas Corpus is considered a basic human right nowadays. In the 17th Century, it was an important barrier against abuses of power by English monarchs
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Charles II succession
-In 1685, Charles II died without an heir to the English crown. It was James II, his catholic brother, who became the fourth ruler of the Stuart dynasty.
82
why was James II tolerated as ruler
The fact that he was a catholic was a major problem for his English subjects but James II was old and his oldest daughter was a protestant.
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what did James II do that did not please protestatants
- They became less tolerant after James II imposed the Act of Indulgence in 1687. It guaranteed religious freedom in England.
- This was a step forward for human rights in England but it was seen like a favor to the English Catholics.
-James II`s tendency to surround himself only with his fellow Catholics also annoyed many prominent English protestants.
84
what was the last straw for English protestants when it came to James II
-In 1688, James II shocked his subject by impregnating his younger wife (he was in his mid-50’s and she was a teenaged Italian princess). The royal couple gave birth to a boy.
- It mortified the members of protestant Parliament who had voted to deny the right a Catholic heir to inherit the crown back in 1678. They were afraid that this boy would be raised as the Catholic heir of James II.
- This quickly led to a very large plot to get rid of James II.
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What was the solution to James II 4 protestants
-An invitation was extended to the protestant daughter of James II, Mary and her husband William of Orange (a Dutch prince, the Dutch protestants had obtained their independence by force against Catholic Spain in 1609).
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Mary daughter of James II coup d'état
- This was a bloodless coup d’état is known as the Glorious Revolution.
- James II realized that he had no supporters in England. His catholic supporters in Ireland were quickly defeated at the Battle of the Boyne.
- James II and his family fled to France. They became a loyal subject of Louis XIV.
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what was the condition for Mary 2 rule
- William and Mary accepted to sign the Bill of Rights to show that they recognize the supremacy of the Parliament in English politics.
- This definitively transformed England into a constitutional monarchy and stripped the following British rulers of their legislative, fiscal and judiciary powers (i.e., the British monarch no longer write, enforce or interpret British laws). It also reduced their power over the British military.
The Glorious Revolution and the Bill of Rights confirmed that the Parliament had won their long struggle against the Stuart monarchs who had tried to impose Absolutism since 1603
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what was the reaction to all this turmoil in England from thinkers
-The political instability that affected 17th Century England prompted opposite reactions from two great political theorists.
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Natural law philosophers
- Thomas Hobbes and John Locke agreed that governments are formed to meet human needs. They also innovated by using the concept of the State of Nature (the state of humans living without an organized government).
- However, their understanding of the state of nature varied due to their very different opinions on the long struggle between the Stuart Dynasty and the English Parliament that affected their lives.
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Thomas Hobbes
- In 1651, Thomas Hobbes wrote the Leviathan. It was published just two years after the aforementioned execution of Charles I.
- England had experienced a civil war during which Hobbes had fled to France.
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what did Hobbes want from governement
-Hobbes craved for a form of government that would protect honest citizens from threats such as lawlessness, invasions and civil wars.
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does Hobbs think people would be order or chaotic without law
- According to Hobbes, humans had brutal animalistic urges. Therefore, every man was the enemy every man.
- Thus, in the state of nature, life could only be short, unpleasant and nasty.
- The state of nature was the state of war for Hobbes. People had to do everything possible to stay away from the state of nature
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how can you avoid the state of nature hobbes
- To forestall this grim place that was the state of nature, Hobbes affirmed, that individuals had to form a commonwealth and place their collective strength in the hands of a single ruler, the Leviathan who assures their protection.
- The people cannot resist the authority of the Leviathan as long as he is guaranteeing their safety.
- According to Hobbes, individual obedience to an arbitrary ruler is necessary to avoid the greater evil of endless violence. For Hobbes, security is more important than individual liberties.
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what did Hobbs think about dissenters
- In the commonwealth, all dissenters had to be mercilessly crushed because rebellions would lead to a return to the state of nature: ``According to Hobbes, the individual should obey whoever is in power, as long as the person in power protects him or her. The only reason for government in the first place is to provide protection`` (Ball et al., 2011, p. 47).
- The Leviathan by Hobbes is important because it is the finest argument to prove that the legitimate use of force is a prerogative of governments. It gives them the power to maintain peace and order within their borders
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John Lock wokrd and context
-Locke returned from his exile in the Netherlands after the Glorious Revolution. This is when he published The Treaties of Government (1690).
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John Lock State of nature
-According to Locke, the state of nature was not brutish because humans have natural and inalienable rights. These rights were the right to live, to be free and to own property.
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-Locke differed from Hobbes:?
- Locke differed from Hobbes: Locke`s`` anti-absolutism stance stood in sharp contrast to Hobbes’s position. For Locke, ultimate authority rests in the will of the majority of propertied men`` (Lualdi, 2010, p.313).
- According to Locke, Landowners can endow authority to a ruler in exchange for protection of their property: ``The great and chief end, therefore, of men`s uniting into commonwealths, and putting themselves under government, is the preservation of their property. `` John Locke, 1690.
- But the authority of the ruler over this majority of proprietors is not limitless.
- A ruler who would threaten or fail to protect the majority of his land-owning subjects loses his/her legitimacy and his subjects can rebel against their ruler of they no longer consent to recognize his/her authority over them:
``Men being, as has been said, by nature all free, equal, and independent, no one can be put out this estate, and subjected to the political power of another without his own consent. `` John Locke, 1690.
``If the government begins to violate these rights by depriving its subjects of life, liberty and property, then the people have the right to overthrow the government and establish a new one in its place. `` (Ball et al., 2011, p. 50).
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John Lock, government and rights
-Governments could help protect these rights but they could also endanger them.
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John Lock influences ignr
-Governments could help protect these rights but they could also endanger them.
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enlightenment intro
- After the Scientific Revolution, European intellectuals began to think that they lived in an age during which science would ensure better living conditions.
- They believed that knowledge could make the masses happier: ``science could promote progress and alleviate human misery. `` (Cole and Symes, 2012, p. 455).
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inspiring figures for 18th c thinkers
-The great minds of the 17th Century such as Galileo, Descartes and Locke also inspired their followers of the 18th century to be more open-minded and more willing to challenge the religious and political authorities.
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Light era thinkers stance on science
- The discoveries of the scientific revolution of scientists such as Newton also demonstrated that the universe is regulated by natural laws and enlightened philosophers were determined to discover the laws that determine all aspects of human societies.
- They believed that methodical observations of human societies could help them discover natural principles about politics and economics.
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Goal of enlightened philosophers
- The enlightened philosophers were determined to make their society progress. Their era, the 18th Century, was a period of unlimited optimism. They believed that human potential is limitless.
- It was as if all the great minds of Europe had agreed to work together to enlighten masses and spread knowledge and happiness
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what did enlightened philosophers think about various common subjects
- The enlightened philosophes wanted to improve their society and they were willing to confront religious and political authorities who stood in the way of change.
- The Enlightened Philosophes condemned outdated things that stood in the way of enlightening the masses such as absolutism, religious intolerance, mercantilism, slavery and the widespread use of torture.
- In the end, the age of enlightenment contributed to making the western world more secular, tolerant and democratic.
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what did philosophy cause on a global scale
-Enlightenment was also a cause of political revolutions in the American colonies, France and St. Domingue (Haiti) where authorities tried to repress the ideals defended by the enlightened philosophes.
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where most of the prominent philosophes
-Enlightenment was an international phenomenon but most of the prominent philosophes were Frenchmen. Paris, the city of lights, was recognized as the capital of this movement.
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French language in 18th c
-French was the main language of enlightenment. It was commonly spoken by educated Europeans of all kingdoms. This allowed Enlightenment to spread across borders.
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spread of ideas enlightenment
The continuous growth of publishing also allowed enlightened philosophes to spread their ideas. The rising popularity of cafés and salons also contributed to the growth of Enlightenment. They were places where enlightened Europeans liked to spend their free time exposing their ideas in public.
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Montesquieu
-In 1721, Montesquieu (Charles de Secondat) wrote his agenda-setting satire Persian Letters. It can be considered the first influential work of the Enlightenment era.
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Lettres perssantes
- In this masterpiece, Montesquieu imagined how two Persian travellers would describe Europe to their fellow Persians.
- He used this format to criticize religious intolerance, absolutism and slavery. Montesquieu wanted to denounce how these problems limited the freedom and happiness of their many victims.
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Montesquieu book 2
Montesquieu was a Baron (nobleman) from Bordeaux.
-He intensely disliked the Bourbons, the dynasty of Louis XIV. In 1748, he attacked absolutism again in his second masterpiece, The Spirit of the Law
In this book, Montesquieu observed the systems used to govern societies (just like Aristotle in the book Politics).
-He believed in maintaining balances among various branches of government.
-According to Montesquieu, England had the best form of checks and balances unlike France where the powers of the Bourbon kings were unchecked
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French vs England government Montesquieu
-This maintained the French people in a state of fear since they had no legal guarantee to protect them from the wrath of their monarch who claimed that his authority was limitless.
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what would be the best system for Montesquieu
-Montesquieu argued that the best system would allow the executive, legislative and judicial branches to control each other: ``there is no liberty, if the judiciary power be not separated from the legislative and the executive. Were it joined with the legislative, the life and liberty of the subject would be exposed to arbitrary control; for the judge would be the legislator. `` Montesquieu, 1748.
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who and what was very influential in the writing of the constitution
-This book was extremely influential during the writing of the Constitution of the United States by James Madison in 1788. Madison and other founding fathers of the United States wanted to create a government with branches that could counter each other to prevent the emergence of tyranny.
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Most famous philosophe
-Voltaire (François-Marie Arouet) was the most famous philosophe. He even had the privilege of corresponding with powerful monarchs of his era such as Frederick the Great of Prussia and Catherine the Great of Russia.
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Voltaire's opinion on England
- Voltaire admired the English like Montesquieu and he even lived in England for three years.
- He liked the English for their religious tolerance and their opposition to absolutism: ``The English are the only people upon earth who have been able to prescribe limits to the power of kings by resisting them`` Voltaire, 1734
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Voltaire en bref
-Voltaire was a prolific author and a polemicist who tirelessly fought against religious intolerance.
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Voltaire famous "Book"
-In his Treatise on Toleration (1763) he wrote “all men are brothers under God”. Voltaire was also a deist. He believed that God created the universe but he does not interfere in the lives of humans. Deism was widespread among intellectuals of the 18th and 19th Century. Thomas Jefferson and Jules Verne were also deists.
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Voltaire's opinion on God's universe
-According to Voltaire, God’s universe is governed by natural laws just like a clock. Therefore, miracles do not happen and Jesus was not divine, he was simply a “Good fellow”.
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Voltaire's opinion on colonies
-Voltaire also criticized France’s colonial policy. He once said that New France was just “a few acres of snow” that was not worth fighting for.
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Denis Diderot
-Denis Diderot was also a ferocious opponent of the Catholic Church. He was an atheist who claimed “this world is only a mass of molecules”.
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Diderot writtings
-But Diderot did not write many pamphlets. Co-editing the Encyclopedia with Jean d’Alembert kept him busy.
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Diderot and d'Alembert's encyclopedia
- The encyclopedia of Diderot and d’Alembert contains 33 volumes that were published between 1751 and 1772. It covers 70,000 subjects! included graphs and drawings of tools and was even used by doctors or lawyers
- This bestselling work spread the knowledge and the ideas of the philosophes throughout the Atlantic world (i.e., Europe & the Americas).
- It allowed the philosophes to present their ideas to members of the elite (doctors, professors, lawyers…).
- The Encyclopedia of Diderot and d’Alambert was a new type of book. It was a masterpiece of the Enlightenment movement. Unlike modern encyclopedias, the articles tended to be biased. They reflected the opinions of enlightened philosophers.
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Jean-Jacques Rousseau who and collaborator
-Jean-Jacques Rousseau, a self-educated Swiss, was arguably the most influential collaborator of Diderot.
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Jean-Jacques Rousseau Childhood
- He was not an aristocrat. His mother died from postnatal complications and his poor father abandoned him.
- Rousseau survived by working as an apprentice in shops of Geneva where he spent all his free time reading all the books that he could find.
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Jean-Jacques Rousseau earlier "career"
- In 1728, he moved to France where he charmed an old Baroness. She urged him to improve his basic education.
- In 1742, he moved to Paris and quickly gained the respect of the other philosophes.
- But Rousseau never felt comfortable in this superficial environment. He eventually developed a bitter rivalry with the other philosophes who nicknamed him the “troubled loner”.
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Rousseau first masterpiece
- In 1762, Rousseau wrote his two masterpieces. In the Social Contract, he portrayed the state of nature as a place where humans where naturally good.
- People in state of nature were purer, freer and happier because they were not negatively influenced by the superficial values of an unjust modern society that corrupts people.
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Once people are corrupted how should one proceed according to Rousseau
For Rousseau and his readers, returning to the state of nature was impossible. Hence, he imagined a way to give a sense of membership to everybody within the modern and unnatural society that Europe had become in the 18th Century.
-He argued for a direct democracy (like in ancient Athens) in which all the citizens had the power to define the General Will (i.e., consensus) together.
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Social contract Rousseau
- Once this was done, the citizens would agree to a social contract (i.e., a constitution) that reflected the General Will of the citizens.
- After that, the general will is unalterable and citizens had to conform to it. Freedom becomes freedom to conform to the General Will.
- Individuals will be forced to be free according to Rousseau: ``Each of us puts his person and all his power in common under the supreme direction of the general will`` Jean-Jacques Rousseau, 1762.
- Everybody would be bound by this mutual obligation because everybody has to participate in the realization of the General Will.
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Views on dissenters Rousseau
- Dissenters could not be tolerated. They could not stand in the way of the desires of the majority.
- Rousseau’s ideas influenced the French Revolutionaries who tended to be merciless towards the enemies of the revolution.
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Rousseau second masterpiece
- Rousseau also wrote Émile, an influential essay on education. He explained how the education and the parenting methods of the 18th century were corrupting children who were naturally good and happy.
- Émile is a book that quickly revolutionized parenting methods in Europe and North America.
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What was Émile critiquing and what did it suggest
- Traditionally, parents tended to neglect young children. The wealthy Europeans tended to hire domestics to take care of their children. The poor Europeans were so busy working that they cared for their kids as little as possible until they were old enough to join them in the fields or their small family business.
- Children were considered as savage and uninteresting beings until they became teenagers.
- Rousseau forced parents to take care of their children by strongly encouraging women to breastfeed their own babies instead of hiring a wet nurse.
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Other practice condemend in Émile
- Rousseau also condemned the practice of swaddling. It involved wrapping babies tightly to immobilize them for hours and improve their posture.
- Instead Rousseau urged parents to let their infants move and play freely and to go outdoors with them as often as possible.
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Émile influence and comparison to Rousseau
- Rousseau also encouraged the parents to pay attention to their children and to let them discover the world by themselves (Rousseau was a hypocrite. He brought his 5 kids to orphanages. He also had a low opinion of the intellectual potential of women).
- His idea that adults should encourage rather than restrict the instincts of children is still influential. The Montessori Method is a modern example of Rousseau’s influence.
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Rousseau's opinion of women
- Rousseau’s most controversial statement in Emile was his discussion of the education of Sophie, the future wife of Emile, his main character.
- Through Sophie’s character Rousseau argues that girls had to be educated differently because their social role was different: ``to be useful socially as mothers and wives`` (Cole and Symes, 2012, p. 463) who would be there to support men (Mary Wollstonecraft disagreed with Rousseau).
he also had a low opinion of the intellectual potential of women)
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were philosophers purely focussed in France?
-The city of Paris was the center of enlightenment but France did not have the monopoly on enlightened minds. The French philosophes found like-minded authors outside of France.
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Italian philosopher (siècle des lumières)
-The Italians had Cesare Beccaria, a lawyer from Milan. He denounced torture which was a common practice used to obtain confessions from suspects of crimes.
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Beccaria main ideas
- Beccaria was the first to openly criticize the widespread belief that cruel punishments were a good way for a society to get its revenge against criminals.
- Beccaria also argued that absolute monarchs unfairly used these cruel public spectacles not only to humiliate criminals but also to enhance their own power over their subjects.
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Beccaria view on torture
- Beccaria argued that torture was useless in cases where evidence was strong against a suspect and that confessions obtained after torture were not valid evidence of the guilt of the accused.
- Moreover, he felt that it was arbitrary and unfair to torture someone who was only a suspect: ``By what right, then except that of force, does the judge have the authority to inflict punishment on a citizen while there is doubt about whether he is guilty of innocent? `` Cesare Beccaria, 1764.
- Beccaria argues that it`s a natural reaction for most victims of torture to have a breaking point where they will do anything to make the pain stop.
- This is why he argued that torture was a pointless and cruel method when investigating a crime and it could lead to sentencing innocents: ``guiltless man will admit guilt if he believes that, in that way, he can make the pain stop. All distinctions between the guilty and the innocent disappear`` Beccaria, 1764.
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Beccaria view on capital punishment
- Beccaria was also opposed to capital punishment and gruesome punishments because they were public spectacles that humiliated criminals.
- Beccaria argued that these spectacles were excessively cruel and that they failed to deter other criminals.
- His popular books contributed to the decline of cruel physical punishment at the end of the 18th Century.
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Adam Smith main points
- The most influential philosophers of the late 18th century were British.
- Adam Smith, the founder of modern economics and economic liberalism, published the Wealth of Nations in 1776.
- Smith sought to discover the natural economic laws that govern societies. He was opposed to mercantilism.
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Mercantilism vs Smith
- According to the mercantilist theory, countries could increase their wealth only at the expense of others.
- This is why countries tried to import as few goods as possible and export as many products as possible. Countries were imposing tariffs on foreign products to deter their consumers from purchasing them.
- On the other hand, Smith argued that nations could be wealthier if their citizens were more productive.
- Thus, the labor force of the nation was the true source of its wealth.
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Mercantilism and "natural economic policies"
- Smith believed that mercantilism was only good to privileged people who could take advantage of unnatural economic policies to protect uncompetitive businesses with unnatural economic measures imposed by a government such as tariffs and monopolies: ``Smith thought of himself as the champion of liberty against state-sponsored economic privilege and monopolies. `` (Cole and Symes, 2012, p. 458).
- This resulted in higher prices for most consumers to benefit the government and people close to the government.
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Smith new economical concept
-Smith argued that the economy is naturally self-regulated by an invisible hand.
-Thus, the market is naturally self-regulating and government interventions to regulate the market and influence the supply and demand of goods and services are unnatural: ``To give the monopoly of the home market … in any particular art of manufacture, is in some measure to direct private people in what matter they ought to employ their capitals… in almost all cases, be either a useless or hurtful regulation.`` Adam Smith, 1776.
``If a foreign country can supply us with a commodity cheaper than we ourselves can make it, better buy it of them`` Adam Smith, 1776.
``Smith`s argument, namely that economic markets should be left to their own devices, free from government regulations that prevailed in his day`` (Lualdi, 2010, p.101)
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Considering the idea of the invisible hand, what did Smith think the government should get involved in
- Therefore, Smith argues governments should not intervene in the economic sphere. Tariffs and subsidies are unnatural interventions that had to be avoided according to him. This is known as laissez-faire.
- Smith advocated free trade and he argued that governments had to restrict themselves to ensuring justice, security, education and public works that were too costly for individuals such as roads, canals, ports and bridges (Smith was also opposed to unnatural economic practices such as slavery and collusion amongst employers to keep wages down or prices high).
- He believed that all nations would eventually benefit if all their citizens were allowed to pursue their economic interests freely and that governments should interfere as little as possible with this natural process of supply and demand in the market.
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Smith conclusion
- Smith believed that citizens would realize that their economic interest would lead them to innovate and work hard to offer goods and services that others demand at a competitive price.
- This industrious and competitive labor force would then increase the wealth of the nation.
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what was the Social-political climate for women in the era pot enlightenment
- Many Enlightened philosophes still share the ancient view that women were intellectually inferior to men despite the active participation of women in the enlightened discussions that were taking place in the salons across Europe (the salon of Madame de Pompadour was the place to be for Parisians who had an interest for Enlightenment).
- Therefore, it is pleasantly surprising that the last great influential mind of the Age of Enlightenment was a woman.
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Mary Wollstonecraft first feminist philosopher
- In 1792, Mary Wollstonecraft established herself as a pioneer of feminism by writing Vindication of the Rights of Women.
- She vehemently attacked the paternalism of the enlightened philosophes who had failed to defend the ability of women to become enlightened too.
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Wollstonecraft opinion of other (male) philosophers of her era
- Wollstonecraft wondered how enlightened men could be so obsessed with progress without allowing half of mankind (i.e., women) to contribute to society by fully developing their intellectual potential.
- The philosophes such as Montesquieu, Voltaire, Beccaria had been offended by the plight of the slaves, the criminals, children and the subjects of absolute monarchs but they had failed to condemn the subjugation and exploitation of women
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Wollstonecraft opinion on marriage
-She was also very critical of marriage that she compared to legal prostitution because it granted legal authority to the husband over his wife.
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Wollstonecraft opinion on education
- She argued that women were able to use reason as well as men.
- Women were simply incapacitated by the sexist values that were transmitted during their education. Thus, equality between the sexes had to begin with equal education according to Wollstonecraft.
- This opportunity would give women the chance to become leaders in fields such as politics, arts, sciences and business.
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Wollstonecraft family
- Wollstonecraft practiced what she preached. She educated her daughter, Mary Godwin Shelley, who wrote the gothic horror novel Frankenstein when she was only 19 years old!!!
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Finally other notable events of the Enlightenement
-Finally, Enlightenment was a cultural golden age that was also marked by the first newspapers, many great composers (Bach and Mozart) and the proliferation of great universities (such as Yale, Princeton, Penn, Dartmouth, Brown, Columbia…).
This scene from the classic movie Amadeus shows Mozart performing during a party in 18th Century Vienna: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gdk7_MJtu_0
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opinion of enlightened Philos on absolutism
-The enlightened philosophes were very critical of absolutism. François-Vincent Toussaint, a contributor to Diderot`s Encyclopedia, wrote this in his article on political authority: ``No man has received from nature the right to command others. Liberty is a gift from heaven, and each individual has the right to enjoy it as soon as he enjoys the use of reasons`` (1751).
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opinion of enlightened Philos on how the change will arise
- However, the enlightened philosophes also distrusted the masses. They believed that poor people were unable of enlightening themselves.
- Most philosophes believed that reforms should come from the ruling elite. Their ideas significantly influenced many rulers of the mid-18th Century.
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What came after absolutism
- During the 18th Century, absolutism was gradually replaced by enlightened despotism in many European kingdoms.
- The Enlightened despots were influenced by the ideas of the enlightened philosophes such as religious tolerance, stopping arbitrary decisions, freedom of expression, educating their subjects and fostering the arts and sciences (curiously, French was the main language of enlightenment and the main despots spoke German).
- The enlightened despots faced the challenge of putting the innovative ideas of the freethinking enlightened philosophes into practice.
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-Frederick the Great
, a friend of Voltaire, is considered as one of the greatest military strategists in history with Alexander the Great, Julius Caesar and Napoleon Bonaparte.
-Frederick was also true philosopher king like his idol, Marcus Aurelius, the last of the Five Good Emperors of the Roman Empire.
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-Frederick the Great rule summary
-Frederick the Great ruled Prussia from 1740 to 1786. He transformed Prussia from a little kingdom to a European power. This new reality had an enormous impact on European politics for the following centuries.
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Prussia military standing
- He was the son of Frederick William I, “the soldier king”, who had improved and expanded Prussia’s military.
- Prussia’s army became the 4th largest European army after France, Russia and Austria during the reign of Frederick William I.
- Prussia had an army of 83,000 men for a kingdom of 2 million subjects!!! The demands of the army were the always top priories of the Prussian ruler. It accounted for about 75 percent of the budget of Prussia (Brinkley, 2005, p. 275).
- Prussia was a militarized society. It was not a kingdom with an army, it was an army with a kingdom according to Mirabeau, an enlightened philosophe.
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Do we like Frederick William the first?
-Fredrick the Great had an adversarial rapport with Frederick William I who was a violent alcoholic who kept his family living in a climate of permanent fear.
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Frederick Tragic backstory
- Frederick the Great had been exposed to the ideas of the philosophes and he tried to run away to Great Britain with a ``friend`` (i.e., secret lover) who was a young military officer.
- This plan failed. Frederick’s friend was accused of being a deserter and he was sentenced to life in prison.
- Frederick William I was disappointed and he overturned the decision of the military court and he ordered the execution of this young officer. Frederick was forced to watch his friend being beheaded.
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Frederick only way out from his father
- Frederick was then forced to get married to a woman that was imposed on him by her father.
- Frederick was a misogynist and he compare his new wife to a duck but he was happy because marriage allowed him to leave his dysfunctional family and give him the autonomy he desperately craved until he could replace his father on the throne of Prussia
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When did Freddy-boy begin his reign
-In 1740 Frederick the Great finally became the king of Prussia. He could finally bring enlightened reforms to his kingdom.
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Fredrick the Great enlightened decisions in short
-Frederick the Great made several enlightened reforms as a king such as abolishing torture (except for murderers and traitors), fighting religious intolerance and increasing
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Fredrick the Great's joint
-He also moved to a new palace named, Sans-Souci in Potsdam (near Berlin) that was the ideal residence for an enlightened despot (Potsdam was the site of a famous meeting between Stalin, Harry Truman and Clement Atlee after the end of World War II in the spring of 1945
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what limited Frederick the Greats enlightened reform
- Frederick the Great’s enlightened reforms were limited by his military interests.
- His father was obsessed with his army but he was reluctant to actually use it in combat. The lack of conflicts in the recent past of Prussia meant that Prussia’s financial situation was very enviable (since wars are usually very costly).
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Fred Main rivial
-Frederick the Great desperately wanted to expand his small kingdom so he did not hesitate to use his army repeatedly especially against his main rival Maria Theresa, the Austrian empress.
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Fred conquest in short
- Frederick the Great was able to take the coveted region of Silesia away from Austria in 1748 and he expanded Prussia eastward by defeating Poland in 1772.
- He was a great conqueror and military strategist. This dumfounded many people who imagine that this friend of Voltaire would be the complete opposite of his father (i.e. that he would not care about war and his army).
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how did Fred feel about his life choices
-Frederick the Great admitted himself that it was challenging for him to balance his enlighten ideals with his plans of conquering territories to expand Prussia: ``it is hard for he who is pulled into great European politics to maintain his honest and pure character.`` Frederick the Great, 1743.
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How restricted Fred the most
-Frederick wanted to expand his burgeoning kingdom and he needed the support of the Junkers who were conservative Prussian noblemen. They usually disagreed with Frederick’s enlightened reforms and they limited his ability to make enlightened reforms.
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Succession between the Greats of Russia
-During 37 years between the death of Peter the Great (1725) and beginning of the reign of Catherine the Great (1762), Russia had been governed by several incompetent tsars/czars of the Romanov dynasty: ``During the next 37 years six tsars ruled Russia, three women, a boy of twelve, an infant and a mental weakling`` (Kishlansky et al., 2007, p. 368).
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Peter III
-The worst was probably Peter III. For example, he was still playing with his collection of toy soldiers well into his twenties.
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How did Catherine arrive in Russia
-Catherine was the daughter of a general in the Prussian army. She was sent to Russia to marry Peter III in 1744 when she was still a teenager.
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DEscribe Catherine in brief
-She was an intelligent, ambitious and adulterous wife: ``Catherine was one the liveliest personalities in world history, her person inspiring numerous stories and myths of great and varied sexual appetite. `` (Stearns, 2010, p. 324).
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what were people's opinion of Catherine the great
- Catherine was also popular with her Russian subjects. She was like the Lady Diana of the 18th Century.
- Catherine learned the Russian language, she travelled across her enormous empire and she converted to the Orthodox Church. This allowed her to be closer to the realities and the values of her Russian subjects.
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Peter III succession
- Catherine also slept with military officers (i.e., the Orlov Brothers and Prince Gregory Potemkin).
- The officers of the Russian army realized that victory against Prussia in the Seven Years’ War was near in 1762 and they never forgave Peter III for depriving them of a victory over Frederick the Great by prematurely asking for peace.
- Gregory Orlov, a Russian officer and one Catherine’s lovers led a plot to assassinate Peter III, Catherine’s moronic husband.
- Catherine became the new Russian ruler to the delight of her entourage and most of her Russian subjects.
- Peter III was the only victim of this military putsch. Most Russians were happy to see Catherine become the new ruler and she was crowned in the majestic coronation coach of the Romanovs.
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Catherine love life after widow
-Catherine never remarried (but she had about 20 boyfriends). Thus, she did not have to share power: ``clever handling of men and circumstances to serve her ends were additional assets of that unusual monarch. The empress admitted herself that it was ambition that sustained her. `` (Riasanovsky, 1977, p. 283).
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what did Catherine think of the enlightenedd philosopher
-Catherine the Great was an admirer of the enlightened philosophes. She especially liked Voltaire, Montesquieu, Beccaria and Diderot (she even purchased Diderot’s library to help him overcome his financial problems. She gave it back to him promptly).
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Catherins document for reform
-Catherine ruled Russia between 1762 and 1796. She quickly wrote her agenda-setting Instruction.
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denouement of Catherines reform
- This document was inspired by the aforementioned enlightenment ideals and they were given to a commission of over 500 Russians who were responsible for writing new laws for Russia.
- Catherine manifested her opposition to serfdom, torture and capital punishment.
- She quickly realized that she had been too ambitious and that her instructions were not compatible with Russia`s traditions. The commissions that received her instructions argued for 18 months and their efforts gave nothing.
- This disappointing political experience taught Catherine a valuable lesson. She learned that enlightening Russia quickly was impossible.
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Did Catherine actually do anything
- She still nurtured her image of an enlightened despot by being a great patron of the arts.
- She founded the Hermitage Museum, the largest Museum in the world, and the Moscow Orphanage at the beginning of her reign. She also opened the National Library of Russia at the end of her reign.
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who limited catherine changes
-However, her reforms were limited by her dependence the Russian nobility that controlled the Russian military.
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A notable event that created a shift in Catherin's behaviour
-Catherine’s failure to improve the miserable living and working conditions of the serfs, the miners and the average soldiers caused the Pugachev rebellion (1773-1775). It was the largest revolt of the 18th Century before the American and French Revolutions. comparable 2 slave rebellion in Rome
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Pugachev rebellion description
- Pugachev, a Russian soldier, promised land and freedom to his fellow underpaid soldiers if they followed him in a rebellion.
- Pugachev also recruited supporters amongst the landless paupers of the Ural region, a mountainous mining and farming area of central Russia.
- He convinced 20,000 people to follow him. His ragtag army was able to conquer and pillage villages and they conquered the city of Kazan. They were defeated when they threatened to invade Moscow.
- Catherine the Great was relieved to see her troops stop Pugachev’s rampage but she was also disappointed and discouraged to see thousands of average Russian challenge her authority.
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What was Catherine like after the rebellions
-She realize that she needed the support of the Russian elite more than ever and that few of them desired to see enlightened reforms in Russia ``After putting down the Pugachev Rebellion in 1774, she began to question the desirability of social reform.`` (Levak et al., 2007, p.397).
-The rebellion discouraged Catherine the Great from ending the plight of the Russian serfs: ``On the issue of serfdom, which most Enlightenment thinkers wished to see abolished. Catherine would not yield. She preserved the social system in order to secure the loyalty of the Russian nobility`` (Levak et al. 2007, p. 397).
``Catherine’s reforms did little to enhance the lives of the vast majority of her people. She took no effective action to end serfdom or soften its rigors.``(Kishlansky et al., 2007, p. 369).
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Did Cathrine put her money where her mouth is
-This shows that her enlightened despot image was a façade (i.e., there was very little substance behind the image). The Russian serfs had to wait until 1888 for their emancipation. The working and living conditions as well as the restrictions to freedom of the Russian Serfs actually worsened during the reign of Catherine the Great. Peter Kolchin (1990) even comapred the plight of Russian serfs of the 18th and 19th Century to the slaves of the USA during the same period in his brilliant award-winning book Unfree Labor: African Slavery and Russian Serfdom.
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Territorial conquest made by Catherine de Great
-Taking Crimea and the port of Sevastopol away from the Ottoman Empire was an amazing achievement for Catherine the Great. It gave Russia access to the Black Sea.
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What did Catherine think of the French Revolution
-The outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789 completely discouraged her and she died disavowing the ideals of Enlightenment.
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Catherine de Gresat succession
- Catherine died of a stroke in 1796 (the rumors that she did a sexual experiment with a stallion are false).
- She was replaced by her son Paul I. Catherine always claimed that he was the legitimate heir and that Peter III, her husband, was his father (but she had many other lovers when her first boy was born in 1754).
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last enlightenemt despot
- Finally, the only major despots who were truly guided by enlightened principles were Joseph II of Austria Charles III of Spain.
- Joseph II ruled Austria (1780-1790) during the life of Mozart. He abolished serfdom, censorship, the death penalty and torture.
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Joseph II main thing
- Joseph II of Austria also guaranteed that the laws would be enforced equally to all his subjects. This Catholic ruler was also tolerant towards religious minority groups who lived within his empire such as Protestants, Orthodox Christians and the Jews.
- This caused the ire of the elite of his multiethnic kingdom and many of his reforms were moderated after his death.
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Spanish enlightened despot
- In Spain, Charles III ruled from 1759 to 1788.
- He modernized his kingdom by implementing enlightened measures to improve the lives of his Spanish subjects by abolishing the notorious Inquisition tribunals, ending the complete control of the Catholic Church over elementary education in Spain, improving roads and farming techniques in the impoverished rural areas and he established houses for the homeless and the orphans and he confiscated neglected estates owned by the Catholic Church to redistribute them to landless peasants.
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What caused the 7-year war
- In the mid-18th Century, the rise of Prussia annoyed France, Russia and Austria. Austria was especially determined to regain control over Silesia after it lost that region to Prussia in the 1740s.
- Moreover, this era was marked by an imperial rivalry between France and Great Britain. The proximity of their colonies in the Americas and Asia caused frictions.
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2 camps seven-year war
-These rivalries divided Europe into two camps: France, Austria and Russia vs. Great Britain and Prussia.
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how widespread was this (7-year war) conflicts consequences
-This division would lead to a worldwide conflict fought on three continents (Europe, Asia and the Americas). This conflict would have long-lasting consequences especially in North America.
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other source of tension
- Another source of tension was the desire of the British colonists to settle on lands west of the Appalachian Mountains in the present-day United States.
- Their problem was that the French had established forts on the lakes and the rivers situated west of the Appalachians.
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sparking incident of the seven-year war
- In 1754, a group of 200 Virginians led by George Washington attacked Fort Duquesne (near Pittsburgh). The French retaliated by capturing and burning Fort Necessity.
- The North American frontier was ablaze. The French could count on the support of the natives and the British colonists were terrified (the Americans call this the French and Indian War).
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Reaction from the British to the capture of Fort Necessity and alliance of the french to the natives
- The British sent Regiments of Red Coats to protect the colonies. (b4 peeps had just kinda handled it on their own with no professional help)
- The British also deported over 6,000 French-speaking Acadians in 1755 (the Acadians call this the Great Upheaval. Every summer the Acadians have the Grand Tintamarre to make sure that nobody forgets about the presence of francophones in the Maritime provinces).
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Tactical move that gave the British the upper hand in America during 7 year war
- In North America, the British gained the upper hand by capturing the fortress of Louisbourg on Cape Breton Island in 1758 (after Jeffrey Amherst’ successful siege that lasted 6 weeks). It allowed them to control the access to the St. Lawrence River.
- Controlling Louisbourg also allowed them to advance their ships all the way to Quebec City because the French troops no longer had the naval support necessary to stop the British navy.
- Montcalm was disappointed to see that 200 British ships easily navigated the challenging currents of the St. Lawrence River.
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what was 1759 like for citizens of québec
The year 1759 was terrible for the citizens of Quebec. They suffered from devastating raids by the Redcoats who had captured Lévis across the St. Lawrence River. The fortified part of Quebec City was bombarded frequently.
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Final British Raid
- The final British raid was launched in the summer of 1759 when the Red Coats climbed l’Anse au Foulon at nighttime to have access to the Plains of Abraham that were near to fortified part of Quebec City.
- The British Red Coats won the decisive Battle of the Plains of Abraham (Wolfe vs. Montcalm).
- The battle lasted less than an hour and it killed approximately 1,300 soldiers (Grant, 2005, p. 184) The British victory marked the end of their long siege of the capital of New France.
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Consequences of loss of plaines d'Abraham
-The British were able to easily capture Montreal and the French forts on the Great Lakes and the Mississippi River after taking control of Quebec City (the British were defeated at the Battle of Ste-Foy but the British maintained their control over Quebec City).
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end of the seven-year war
-In 1763, the Treaty of Paris confirmed the end of the Seven Years` War. It changed the map of North America significantly.
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Change in territories in America treaty of Paris
- Louis XV of France ceded all his North American territories to the British except St. Pierre and Miquelon.
- The French wanted to keep islands that would allow them to keep fishing near Newfoundland. The French were also able to keep their valuable colonies of the Caribbean (The British also gave Louisiana to Spain in exchange for Florida).
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who won in India (seven-year war)
-The British also defeated the French in India thanks to the efforts of Robert Clive who won the crucial Battle of Plassey.
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what can explain why the British were that successful in the seven-year war
- The British had been able to focus on North America and India because of the military prowess of Frederick the Great.
- His Prussian army was able to resist the invasion of “allied” forces of France, Russia and Austria.
- His exhausted army was about to crumbled in 1762 when Peter III of Russia asked for peace to the delight of a relieved Frederick the Great who had quickly noticed in 1758 that Russia’s would be a difficult opponent for his mighty Prussian war machine ``Il est plus facile de tuer ces Russes que de les vaincre.`` (Napoleon and Hitler ignored this good advice and caused their own downfalls by attacking Russia).
- Peter III’s refusal to continue a war started by his predecessor forced his French and Austria partners to end hostilities against Frederick the Great and his Prussian army.
- This allowed Fredrick to consolidate his tenuous hold over the coveted region of Silesia.
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How influential was this conflict to the future
-This large conflict ruined all the belligerents and eventually caused revolutions in the British colonies and France. For example, the debt of Great Britain doubled due the length on unprecedented scale of this conflict (Grant, 2009, p. 184).
