Chapters 9 to 11 Flashcards
(117 cards)
1
Q
How did the British colonists in America feel about their Metropole in the mid 1700s
A
- In 1763, Great Britain officially won the Seven Years’ War (also known as the French and Indian War). This was a great source of pride for the 1.5 million inhabitants of the 13 American colonies.
- The American colonists were part of the most powerful empire in the world, they liked their monarch (George III) and they wanted to follow British trends.
- But Great Britain would still fail when it tried to fully integrate the American colonies within its empire.
2
Q
What was Britain’s economic position after the seven-year war and main parties involved
A
-From the British standpoint, the victory over France was very costly. George III (king), George Grenville (the prime minister) and the members Parliament knew that the Britons were already overtaxed and they could not possibly squeeze more money out of British taxpayers.
3
Q
what was the solution to the British being poor for the authorities after seven-year war
A
-Hence, the British authorities concluded that the colonists had to pay a share of the debt (it added up to approximately 146 million sterling pounds or $240 million US to the British debt).
4
Q
what. caused the change of opinion of American colonists on their country
A
The American colonists had enjoyed a great degree of freedom for more than 150 years by 1763 and they would not accept to see their freedom being threatened.
-Salutary neglect by the British authorities had allowed the American Colonists a lot of freedom to develop their own institutions and their own commercial activities during the 17th and early 18th century (Salutary neglect means that Britain’s neglect of the colonies had allowed them to develop on their own in comparison to Spain and France who tended to control their colonies more strictly).
-The English authorities controlled their colonies of the Americas much less tightly than France and Spain.
The lax leadership of the British between the founding of Virginia in 1607 and the end of the Seven Years` War in 1763 had led the American colonists to enjoy an enviable degree of autonomy.
-Losing this freedom would not be acceptable for the American colonists even if they were proud citizens of the British Empire
5
Q
First measure from the government which triggered distrust from the American colonists
A
- George III also decided to impose the unpopular Proclamation of 1763. It stipulated that the colonists could not settle west of the Appalachians and that the Red Coats would stay in the colonies because the king, George III, wanted a peaceful hiatus to bring back stability to North America.
- The main goal of this proclamation was to temporarily separate the colonists and the natives to prevent more violence (the British were already dealing with Pontiac’s Rebellion. Pontiac, the Chief of the Ottawas, wanted to drive the British out of the Great Lakes Region).
6
Q
was the Proclamation of 1763 the only regulation from British
A
-The British authorities continued to impose controversial regulations that frustrated the American colonists.
7
Q
worst act according to the American colonist
A
- The worst was the Stamp Act of 1765. A royal stamp was required for documents such as wills, cards, newspapers, almanacs… (This law has been called the “stupidest piece of legislation ever passed” because it angered journalists, lawyers, gamblers…).
- The American colonists argued that taxes imposed by the parliament were illegal because they were not represented by the members of parliament “No taxation without representation”.
8
Q
explain the concept of virtual representation
A
-The British believed in virtual representation. They argued that the members of parliament represented the interests of all the subjects of George III.
9
Q
Act that effected taxes
A
-The British even gave themselves the power to officially impose taxes and laws on the American colonies with the Declaratory Act of 1766.
10
Q
how did the Americans FEEL to all of these new acts (not continetal congress)
A
- On the other hand, the colonists did not feel like rebels. The true outlaws were the British from their standpoint.
- The American colonists were so angry that they attacked British officials in the colonies such as governors and revenue agents.
- The British did not get revenues from the colonies; they got disorder instead.
11
Q
did the British press on at full speed after the stamp act
A
- The firestorm temporarily subsided when parliament rescinded the controversial Stamp Act in 1766.
- The British Parliament still wanted to tax the American colonists but the damage was done. The American colonists no longer trusted the British authorities.
12
Q
how were both parties left after the residing of the stamp act
A
- The British authorities simply believed that the colonists did not want to pay taxes.
- But the problem was that the American colonists felt like they were the victims of a tyrannical plot to deprive them of their rights (not their money. Many wealthy southern planters felt like parliament wanted to make them as powerless as their own slaves).
13
Q
what replaced the stamp act
A
-The British resumed their efforts to obtain revenues from the American colonies by imposing duties on common goods such as glass, paper, paint and tea. These taxes were part of the Townshend Duty Act of 1767 (named after Charles Townshend, the British Prime Minister).
14
Q
how did the Americans react to the Townshend Duty Act
A
-The American colonists replied by boycotting all the British products. this tactic lasted about three years until another event fanned the flame of revolution…
15
Q
non-legislation event that fanned the flame of revolution in America
A
- The tension was exacerbated by the Boston Massacre (1770). The trigger-happy Red Coats fired on protesters and killed five Bostonians including Crispus Attucks, the first martyr of the American Revolution.
- The acquittal of the Red Coats who had been accused of murder added even more fuel to the fire.
- Many Bostonians were sickened by what they considered an injustice.
16
Q
Reaction to the Boston massacre
A
- The British repealed all taxes except the one on tea to fix this monumental gaffe of the Red Coats.
- The American colonists avoided that tax by buying tea from Dutch merchants even if it was more expensive than British tea.
- In December 1773, the British lowered the tax on tea to discourage this practice.
- The colonists were still frustrated in spite of the tax reduction.
- The Boston Tea Party protested by breaking into a vessel of the British East India Company and jettisoning 342 cases of tea (they dressed as natives, they received help from the British crewmembers, it took them 3 hours, the modern value of the tea would be $1 Million and Benjamin Franklin offered to pay it back).
-The possibility of a war between Great Britain and its American colonies was starting to look like a possibility: “The internal revolution and the destruction of the empire began when the people of Massachusetts decided to resist rather than pay for the tea. People in other colonies rallied to them” (Countryman, 1985, p. 106).
17
Q
British shut-the-fuck-up-and-calm-down act
A
- The British replied by imposing the Coercive Acts/Intolerable Acts.
- They closed the port of Boston and banned town meetings
18
Q
British act applying to us in here and reaction from American citizens
A
- Parliament also imposed the unpopular Quebec Act that added the Great Lakes Region to Quebec and guaranteed free practise of Catholicism in that vast territory.
- This was unacceptable for the English-speaking Protestants of the American colonies (especially those who were hoping to go settle in the Great Lakes Region).
19
Q
after all of these acts, what did the colonies do?
A
-In 1774, representatives from the 13 colonies (except Georgia) met in Philadelphia for the First Continental Congress. The war with Great Britain was imminent.
20
Q
how does american revolution figure in history of political tervolutions
A
- The American Revolution is the most successful political revolution and one of the most influential events in the history of the world.
- It was not followed by an intense of wave of persecution (unlike the revolutions in France, Russia and China), it allowed the creation of the first large Republic since the 1st Century B. C. and this Republic still exists today more than 200 years later.
- Moreover, the American Revolution proved that free people could govern themselves without a monarch
21
Q
intolerable acts
A
cohesive acts + Quebec act
22
Q
was the american revoltion an impilsive caotic revoltution
A
-The American revolutionaries did not want anarchy. It was a revolution based on law and order. They used legal arguments to justify their rebellion.
23
Q
when / how hostilities began amr
A
- The hostilities began in April, 1775 with the Battles of Lexington and Concord in Massachusetts.
- The Red Coats wanted to arrest John Hancock and Sam Adams. They also wanted to seize the arsenal of the American rebels.
- Their mission was a failure thanks to Paul Revere’s effort to warn these towns that the Red Coats were leaving Boston.
24
Q
what did paul revere allow the Americans to organize
A
- The British were surprised by Minutemen who killed or wounded more than 200 Red Coats (8 Minutemen had been killed in Lexington).
- The myth of British invincibility was dead and Massachusetts was declared to be in a state of rebellion by British authorities
25
how did political attempts to quell the beginning of the war fair (2nd continental congress)
- This led to a second meeting of the Continental Congress in Philadelphia.
- The most moderate Congressmen tried to reach out to George III with the Olive Branch Petition.
- Their king refused to protect them from the tyrannical British parliament because of the rebellious acts already committed in the colonies and he ignore the petition.
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official begin war
- This [olive branch petition tuned down] meant war. The Patriots (i.e. the Americans) had to form an army (Continental Army).
- They also had to find someone to lead it. The colonies did not have a single general in 1776.
- The Congressmen picked Colonel George Washington mainly because he was a Virginian, and Virginia was the most populated colony.
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first MAJOR confrontation amr war
- The first major confrontation was the Battle of Bunker Hill in Boston.
- The Red Coats where able to take control of Boston but they were stunned by the strength of the Continental Army.
- This was the deadliest battle of the American Revolution (1,000 Red Coats died. The Americans lost 400 soldiers).
- The Continental Army was able to quickly regain control over Boston by using 60 canons that were stolen in Fort Ticonderoga (this was a former French fort on Lake Champlain). It was captured by Ethan Allen’s Green Mountain Boys.
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win battle bunker hill = what reaction am
-These initial victories, the rejection of the Olive Branch Petition and the publication of Common Sense by Thomas Paine convinced the 13 colonies to leave the British Empire definitively.
The separation became official when Thomas Jefferson wrote the Declaration of Independence.
-It was signed on July 4, 1776 (but they did not ring the Liberty Bell):``The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having, in direct object, the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these States…A prince whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a tyrant is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. ``
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so Declaration of Independence peace out we good ?
-But the colonies still had to fight for to obtain their independence.
30
Who wrote the Declaration of Independence.
Thomas Jefferson
31
disadvantages of the continental army
- The odds were not in the favor of the colonies. They had to face an intimidating coalition that include a myriad of forces who hoped to stop them such as the British Navy (the best in the world), Red Coats (50,000 British soldiers), German mercenaries (30,000 Hessians), slaves, natives (Cherokees, Shawnees, Delawares, Creeks, Choctaws, Iroquois…) and loyalists (20 percent of the population of the colonies wished to remain in the British Empire).
- Moreover, the British controlled New York City and Canada despite the courageous efforts of the Americans to control these territories (the Americans were sure that the French Canadians would join them but they did not).
- The colonies’ efforts were also undermined by their lack unity. The 13 colonies did not have a common currency, treasury, court, capital…
32
advantages of the continental army
- However, the Continental Army could count on its knowledge of the terrain and the fact that the war was not popular in Britain and it’s very difficult for powerful countries to win unpopular wars.
- Moreover, the Americans had the support of idealistic foreigners such as Marquis de Lafayette and Baron von Steuben (this Prussian officer trained the soldier of the Continental Army to use the bayonets as effectively as the British Red Coats).
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"Come one come all"
| what were the bets of the results of amr war?
-By the end of 1776, most observers believed that the British would end this rebellion within 6 months.
34
What changed tide of war
- This changed when George Washington crossed the frozen Delaware River on Christmas Eve (1776) to stun the Hessians (Germans mercenaries) at Trenton and the Red Coats at Princeton.
- The Victories at Trenton and Princeton lifted moral and saved the American cause heading into 1777.
- The turning point of the Revolution was the Battle of Saratoga (Fall of 1777).
- The Continental Army defeated the arrogant British General Burgoyne.
- Burgoyne and 6,000 Red Coats came down from Canada to reinforce their peers in New York City.
- Burgoyne’s troops underestimated the difficulty of traveling in the wilderness and they were surprised by the Continental Army.
35
effects winning the Hessians (Germans mercenaries) at Trenton and the Red Coats at Princeton, Battle of Saratoga
- These victories gave confidence to the Americans and it led the French to join their side to weaken the British Empire (Spain also began supporting the American cause).
- France also recognized the independence of the United States.
36
was everything smooth sailing after the Battle of Saratoga
-But the Americans still endured setbacks. They had lost Philadelphia (in September 1777) and more than 2,500 soldiers died when they were forced to spend the harsh winter of 1777-1778 at their camp of Valley Forge, Pennsylvania (epidemics of diseases such as influenza and typhus caused most deaths).
37
After 1778 where did the actions happen
- After 1778, the action shifted to the south. Most of the south was controlled by General Cornwallis and his Red Coats.
- Cornwallis was obtaining fewer soldiers from the British authorities because the war was unpopular in Great Britain so he took his troops south because he believed that it would be easier to find loyalists who would volunteer to support the British cause in the southern colonies.
38
was shifting south a good idea for the British troops and conclusion war
- However, General Cornwallis was constantly harassed by the troops of Nathaniel Greene and a guerilla band led by Francis Marion, the swamp fox.
- Cornwallis regretted his choice and in 1781 and he made a costly mistake by trapping himself on a narrow piece of land in Yorktown, Virginia where he was surrounded by the Continental Army led by George Washington and the French Navy.
- Left without any reinforcements Cornwallis decided to surrender after a siege for 3 weeks. This marked the end hostilities (the Battle of Yorktown cause approximately 400 victims).
-The Americans enjoyed the upper hand in the negotiation but the British position was not desperately weak. They still controlled areas of the American colonies including New York City.
-The lengthy peace negotiations took place in Paris. The Americans failed to obtain Canada and access to the Gulf of Mexico.
-However, Great Britain recognized the independence of the United States. Great Britain also relinquished all properties in the former colonies.
“The revolution did more than legally create the United States; it transformed American society” (Wood, 1991, p. 6) because the governmental institutions that the Founding Fathers would create still remain the main unifying forces in the United States today.
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industrial revolution intro
- Two major political revolutions took place in the late 18th Century in the United States and France. At the same time the British were the experiencing another revolutionary event.
- The industrial revolution which began in Great Britain in the late 18th century changed the pace of production and the working habits of mankind significantly.
- The industrial revolution was arguably the most important advance in history since the Neolithic Revolution (10,000 B. C. to 4,000 B. C.): ``This revolution was perhaps the greatest transformation in society since settled farming.`` (Lockard, 2011, p. 527)
40
-During the late 18th Century, Great Britain became the first industrialized nation. It was the workshop of the world because of the following reasons:
1. The British Agricultural Revolution: During the 18th Century, Britain increased its agricultural output significantly.
2. Mineral resources: Britain was richly supplied with minerals that are needed in the manufacturing process such as coal and iron.
3. Geographical factors: Britain is a small country and the transportation of goods and resources was facilitated by many existing rivers:
4. Great Britain had the largest colonial empire and the best navy in the world.
5. Great inventors:
6. Stability: Since 1688, England had been stable socially and politically.
41
The British Agricultural Revolution cause
- This was caused by the innovative farming methods and selective breeding of livestock used by British farmers such as Robert Bakewell.
- They viewed farming like a science. English landlords displayed an interest in crop rotation and fertilizer which their counterparts from other European kingdoms would have found quite beneath their dignity.
42
Consequence one of the agricultural revolution
Lower food prices =
- Population growth leading to a greater workforce
- lower food prices leading to more disposable income
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Population growth
- The access to more food triggered a spectacular population growth. It also freed up a significant percentage of the laborers to work in other industries and allowed the British consumers to spend less on food.
- The population of England, the main region of Great Britain, doubled from 8.5 to 17 million between 1801 and 1851 (Kishlansky, 2007, p. 425).
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lower food prices
- Lower food prices did not only allow the growth of the population. It also meant that British consumers had more disposable income than ever before to buy other goods such as clothing and furniture.
- The fact that British consumers paid less for food and that there were more consumers than ever in Britain created a large market with many consumers who had plenty of money to spend: ``Cheaper food allowed more discretionary spending, which fueled the demand for consumer goods`` (Kishlansky et al., 2007, p. 425).
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2. Mineral resources: Britain was richly supplied with minerals that are needed in the manufacturing process such as coal and iron. causes and consequence
- minerals were needed to conduct the operations of the industrial revolution and great britain had a ton
-The use of these minerals in transportation and manufacturing caused a boom in the British mining industry.
-The use of coal grew by 400 percent between 1815 and 1840. The production of iron increased by more than 700 percent from 1790 and 1830 (King, 2006, p. 623). This demand for coal caused the creation of new mining towns in Wales, Scotland and northern England.
``The Industrial Revolution could not have occurred without coal. It was the black gold of the eighteen century, the fuel that fed the furnaces and turned the engines of industrial expansion.`` (Kishlanky et al, 2007, p. 426).
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3. Geographical factors:
``Among Britain’s blessings. Water was foremost. Britain was favored by an internal water system that tied inland communities together. In the eighteenth century, no place in Britain was more than 70 miles from the sea or more than 30 miles from a navigable river.`` (Kishlansky, 2007, p. 425).
-The British parliament and bankers were also willing to invest in building transportation infrastructures such canals, bridges and railroads.
- These allowed manufacturers to take their goods to customers across Great Britain very quickly.
- Great Britain and its colonies formed one big market where goods could move quickly and without trading barriers.
- Because of that Great Britain was the first country to have a large-scale capitalist economy.
- British manufacturers knew that they were not producing only for the people of the town where their manufacture was located. They could have access to all the customers of Great Britain and even customers in the British colonies overseas.
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Great Britain had the largest colonial empire and the best navy in the world.
-The manufacturers could count on their colonies (Canada, India, Jamaica…) to export their surpluses and to have access to cheap natural resources such as timber and cotton: ``In 1750, Britain imported less than 5 million pounds of raw cotton; a century later the volume had grown to 588 million pounds.`` (Kishlansky, 2007, p. 429).
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Great inventors expanded
- The proverb ``necessity is the mother of invention`` was proven to be true many times during the industrialization of Great Britain.
- The rising demand for manufactured goods and mining resources required the invention of new machines to make and transport products more quickly.
- This gave incentives to British inventors to find ways to accelerate production because the financial rewards could be enormous.
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example invention in agriculture
-In the 1760s James Hargreaves invented the spinning jenny that revolutionized the production of cotton by turning the fiber into knitting yarn much more quickly than with a traditional spinning wheel.
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example invention in manifature
- James Watts invented an engine powered by coal that could drive machinery and pull water out of mines.
- Steam obtained from burning coal could activate machines that were much stronger and faster.
- It also allowed manufacturers to locate their manufactures wherever they wanted. For example, textile manufacturers did not have to be near rivers like pre-industrial cotton mills.
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examples inventions in transport
- In 1804, Richard Trevitchick invented the steam-powered locomotive.
- George Stephenson improved it and he opened the first public railway in 1830 between Liverpool and Manchester.
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6. Stability
-It was arguably the most stable European country and it had not been invaded since 1066! In the 1940s, Eric Williams argued that slavery and the slave trade contributed to the industrial liftoff of Great Britain but his theory has been discredited by economists and historians.
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how did great Britain compare to the rest of the world at the time
-Because of these six reasons Great Britain had achieved an impressive level of economic development by 1850.
-By the mid-19th century Great Britain had more miles of railroads than France, Prussia and Belgium put together. The British production of coal, iron and clothes also easily surpassed the total production France, Prussia and Belgium (King, 2006).
``For decades Britain was the world’s richest, most competitive nation with a reputation as the workshop of the world…By the mid-1800s Britain produced two-thirds of the world’s coal, half the iron, and half the cotton cloth and other manufactured goods.`` (Lockard, 2011, p. 529).
-People from all over Europe were in awe when Great Britain’s technological superiority was on display in the exhibition of London in 1851 (the event was organized by Prince Albert, the husband of Empress Victoria).
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goals for owners at the time of the industrial revolution
-The machinery of the manufactures was costly, powerful, quick and tireless. The owners did not want to see it stop since they wanted to make profits on their considerable investments as quickly as possible.
It required that the manufacturers strictly applied rules to maintain a workforce that was focused and disciplined: ``it was the manager’s task to break old habits of intermittent work, indifference to quality, and petty theft of materials.`` (Kishlansky et al., 2007, p. 431).
-This cartoon compares the British workers to bees who never stop working.
-For manufacture owners time was money: ``Every machine is valuable in proportion to the quantity of work which it will turn off in a given time. It is impossible that the machinery could produce as much work in ten hours as in twelve.`` William Harter, a 19th Century British manufacturer.
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what was Britain's economy like before and after
-British manufacturers and workers had to quickly adjust to the reality that Great Britain was transforming from a predominantly agricultural economy to an industrial economy.
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How did the mentality of time is money affect the world
- This new logic radically transformed the pace of work and the lifestyle of the workers.
- The workers were timed for the first time in history. The machines imposed the pace of work and their jobs were repetitive. This was demanding for the workers: ``The tediousness and the everlasting sameness in the first process preys much on the spirits, and makes the hands spiritless.`` John Wright, a worker in a 19th Century Silk mill.
- The industrial revolution changed mankind`s relation to time for ever because work cycles had nothing to do with the sun and the seasons anymore.
- Time keeping revolutionized the pace of work and the working schedule (accurate timekeeping also revolutionized transportation, cooking, sports, warfare…)
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working conditions
- The workers could also work more than 90 hours per week!!! A typical week would be from Monday to Saturday. A typical workday would be from 5 AM to 9 PM with only a short break at noon.
- The British manufacture owners were not restricted by any laws on wages or working conditions.
- Dangerous working conditions and long workdays often led to injuries. Injured workers were often reduced to begging since they were not entitled to any compensations.
- They also imposed strict rules and sanctions to discipline workers such as fining employees who left their position before the end of the workday, workers who talked to each other, smoked or showed up drunk to work.
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Demographics during the industrial revolution
- The employers could count on a seemingly endless supply of young workers to fill workplaces because wages in manufactures and mines were higher than in the British countryside where land was increasingly scarce due to the aforementioned growth of the British population.
- Therefore, there was a massive exodus of the poor peasants in search of a better life from the countryside to the cities in Great Britain.
- For example, the population London, the British capital, grew from 676,000 inhabitants in 1750 to 2,320,000 in 1850. Industrialization allowed London to increase its lead as the biggest city in Europe (King, 2006, p. 650).
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changing demographics and population growth =
- Urbanization allowed the rapid growth of other British cities. London was the only large British city in 1750 (before the beginning of the industrial revolution).
- However, Liverpool, Manchester and Glasgow joined Europe’s 10 biggest cities in 1850.
- Birmingham, Newcastle, Sheffield and Leeds also enjoyed spectacular growth of their populations: ``Cities sprang up from grain fields almost overnight. The lure of steady work and high wages prompted an exodus from rural Britain…In 1505, about 15 percent of the population lived in urban areas; by 1850, about 60 percent did. `` (Kishlansky, 2007, p. 432).
- Industrialization temporarily turned Great Britain into the most urbanized country in Europe (King, 2006, p. 651).
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conditions housing undistrail revolution
- Salaries attracted workers to workplaces that were unbearably warm, noisy and insalubrious.
- The workers also had to endure appalling housing conditions in overcrowded neighborhoods that were located near manufactures.
- Due to poor urban housing and overcrowding, along with the pressures of factory itself, many workers were in poor health.
- For example, rates of infant mortality were high, and many workers had life expectancy at birth of 30 years. That was only half as high as that of their employers. (Stearns and Chapman, 1992).
- Typhoid and cholera diseases caused by drinking contaminated water were especially deadly.
- They were common diseases in poor and unplanned neighborhoods that did not have sewage and garbage collection systems before the 1840s. This left the streets unsanitary and foul-smelling.
- Industrial boomtowns such as Manchester and Glasgow were unable to deal with the waste produced by manufactures and overcrowded neighborhoods.
- Crime also reached epidemic proportion in industrial boomtowns.
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was everywhere horrible working conditions
- It should be noted that there was one notable exception to this deplorable situation.
- The textile workers of New Lanark, Scotland who were employed by Robert Owen, a utopian socialist, did benefit from much better living and working conditions.
- Owen paid for the local elementary school to educate the children of his workers (instead of exploiting them) and he made sure that nobody worked more than 10.5 hours per day in his town (Brinkley, 2005).
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did everyone agree with the new mode of life the industrial revolution offered
-Owen was unfortunately an exception. The harsh conditions imposed by most other employers led British workers to form groups such as the Chartists who wanted universal male suffrage and the Luddites who were opposed to mechanization of work.
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Luddites
- The Luddites were mainly skilled artisans who lost revenues due to competition from manufactures. They invaded factories and destroyed the machinery. Their attacks took place between 1815 and 1830.
- The Luddites’ resistance to the mechanization of work was futile and their movement declined steeply after 1830 when the British Parliament made the destruction of machines a crime punishable by death (Lockard, 2011).
- The Luddites’ resistance to the mechanization of work was futile and their movement declined steeply after 1830 when the British Parliament made the destruction of machines a crime punishable by death (Lockard, 2011).
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Charists
- The protests of the Chartists were more effective. They led to the formation of a working-class consciousness and arguably convinced the British government to pay attention to the problems of the workers in the new mines and manufactures.
- In the 1830s the British Parliament organized its own investigations into the conditions of British workers. It led to many laws that finally imposed overdue restrictions on employers.
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Industrial revolution acts
1. Factory Act (1833):
2. Coal Mine Act (1842):
3. Ten Hour Act (1847):
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1. Factory Act (1833):
Children under the age of 13 could not work for more than 8 hours a day. They also had to receive two hours of elementary education per day.
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2. Coal Mine Act (1842):
Banned the employment of children and women in coal mines (employers liked to hire them because they were smaller and they worked for lower wages then men).
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3. Ten Hour Act (1847):
Imposed a maximum of 10 hours per day for working women and teenagers.
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did gb remains the only industrial nation for long
- The British tried to prevent industrial espionage but the industrial revolution quickly reached Belgium, France, Prussia, Northern Italy and the United States by the 1820s.
- Industrialisation also began in North America in the mid-19th Century. The Industrial Revolution that began in Great Britain during 18th Century is still continuing nowadays. The growth of China and other countries of Far East Asia since the 1990s is very similar that what happened during the industrialization of Europe and North America.
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American Constitution intro who wrote
-Creating and defining this new country was not an easy task. The Constitution was the subject of intense and endless debates between opinionated members of the 13 colonies.
–James Madison of Virginia was the main author of the Constitution that was finally approved in 1787.
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was the constitution all done in one go
-The Constitution has been amended 26 times since it passed but many important articles still remain. Madison was influenced by Montesquieu.
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key concepts American constitute
- This influential French enlightened philosopher argued that it’s essential to have a system of checks and balances that separates powers to prevent a government from taking tyrannical, abusive and spontaneous decisions.
- Thus, the Constitution clearly divides the legislative, executive and judicial powers in 3 branches of the American government.
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legislation branch of government us
-The Congress has the power to legislate (i.e., make laws).
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congress responsibilities
- Legislate laws
- It has other important responsibilities such as collecting taxes, declaring war, printing money, authorizing and maintaining public infrastructures (highways, bridges, railroads, pipelines, ports, airports…)
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Congress functioning
Congress is a bicameral legislature that consist of Senate and a House of Representatives.
- The laws and the budgets passed by Congress need the approval of the President.
- The President can urge Congress to modify a law or even use his veto to cancel a law but the Congress can also impeach the President.
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president
- The President is elected for 4 years (the Vice-President too). Only the people who are natural-born citizens over the age of 35 can become president.
- The President has executive power and is the commander in chief of the army and the navy.
- The president needs to present the state of the union to the members of Congress.
- The President has the power to select the members of his cabinet (i.e., his secretaries for defense, treasury, justice, agriculture, transportation…).
- The President also selects the future justices of the Supreme Court. They must get approved by the Senate.
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Supreme Court
- The Constitution gives the judicial power to the Supreme Court. The court has 9 justices. One of them is the Chief Justice.
- The Supreme Court can invalidate laws passed by Congress or the states if a majority of Justices consider a law to be unconstitutional. It can also confirm and invalidate decision of all the other American tribunals.
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-The Causes of the French Revolution were:
1. The Bourbons dynasty had ruined the country.
2. The clergy and the nobility of France had too many fiscal privileges.
3. The masses struggled to pay their taxes and they suffered from the bad harvests of 1787 and 1788.
4. The Americans had proven that it`s possible defeat tyranny during the American Revolution.
5. The enlightened philosophes had denounced absolutism for decades (but not monarchy).
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Congress of Vienna main cause
- Napoleon Bonaparte’s downfall was imminent after his catastrophic retreat from Russia (1812) and his defeat at Leipzig, Germany (1813).
- This pleased his opponents. But they had to deal with the monumental task of erasing the “accomplishments” of the French Revolution and Napoleon.
- Since the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789, there were growing beliefs in Europe that all men should have the right to vote and that all nations should have their country. These nationalist and democratic ideals mortified Metternich.
- The goal of the Congress Vienna was to reorganize France and the rest of Europe after 25 years of chaos (1789-1814).
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main bitch congress of v
-In the 1814, Klemens von Metternich was the master of ceremonies of the Congress of Vienna.
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Klemens von Metternich political opinions
-Metternich was a very conservative man. He believed in the importance of traditions, order and organize religion.
-He considered that revolution, democratic governance and nationalism were dangerous ideas that should be suppressed because political changes cause instability:
“let the governments govern, let them maintain the groundwork of their institutions, both ancient and modern; for it is at all times dangerous to touch them” Klemens von Metternich, 1820
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congress of Vienna: a professional work environment ?
- The congress of Vienna was not only about diplomacy. It was a chance for the aristocrats such as Metternich to celebrate the downfall of Napoleon, a parvenu that was opposed to their privileges.
- Therefore, this large congress witnessed endless series of balls, feasts, fireworks, concerts, hunting, gambling, horse shows… (it was the most expensive party ever).
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what did Klemens von Metternich argue during the congress
- According to Metternich, maintaining peace was impossible without legitimate monarchs. Opportunists such as Napoleon were not legitimate monarchs for Metternich.
- He even argued that it was necessary for great powers to show solidary when facing a revolution.
- Metternich was conservative but he argued that the threats of nationalism and democracy that were unleashed by the French Revolution required adjustments from European monarchs.
- He believed that legitimate monarchs had the right to intervene militarily in other kingdoms when another legitimate monarch was threatened by revolutionary forces.
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what did other groups think of Klemens von Metternich's views
- The British did not agree with Metternich on this last point. Lord Castlereagh, the British representative at this congress, wanted to avoid the rise of dominant power on the continent.
- This was because Napoleon had threatened to invade Great Britain and he disrupted Britain’s commercial activities due to the dominant position of France on the European continent during Napoleon’s reign.
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congress of vienne conclusions
- In the end, the goals of the Congress of Vienna were:
1. Prevent revolutions.
2. Strengthen traditional monarchies.
3. Assure the cooperation between these monarchies (Great Britain, Austria, Russia and France).
4. Repress emerging ideas (i.e., democracy and nationalism).
5. Create a balance between European powers to avoid wars.
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how effective was the system created in the congress of Vienna
- This system conceived by Metternich and the British worked rather well at maintaining peace.
- The 19th Century was arguably one of the most peaceful periods of the last 5,000 years in Europe. This was especially true for the period between 1815 and 1860.
- But the unifications of Italy and Germany eventually ruined the ideals of the Congress of Vienna. Furthermore, they provoked new rivalries that caused World War I.
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main bitch unification of Germany
-The architect of the German unification was Otto von Bismarck, ``The Iron Chancellor``.
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what position was Germany in after Napoleon’s conquest
- Napoleon’s conquests in Central Europe had officially ended the long history of the Holy Roman Empire, a German empirer that dated back to the Middle Ages.
- It was replaced by the German Confederation that regrouped 39 territories.
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who be Bismarck
- Bismarck served William I, the King of Prussia. When he was appointed Chief Minister of the government of Prussia in 1862.
- William I and Bismarck wanted to continue the expansion of Prussia and unite all the small German kingdoms into an empire dominated by Prussia.
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watch the sitch in 1862 Prussia
-In 1862, Prussia was still a relatively small kingdom with a great professional army (just like Prussia under Frederick the Great). Prussia was also going through its Industrial Revolution in the 1860s.
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first territorial acquisition for Bismarck
- Bismarck quickly obtained an opportunity to expand Prussia northward when Denmark claimed to have authority over two disputed duchies (Holstein and Schleswig).
- The Austrians also disagreed with Denmark’s claim to these duchies.
- The Prussians and the Austrians quickly defeated Denmark. This allowed the acquisition of new territories for Prussia.
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first territorial acquisition for Bismarck
- Bismarck quickly obtained an opportunity to expand Prussia northward when Denmark claimed to have authority over two disputed duchies (Holstein and Schleswig).
- The Austrians also disagreed with Denmark’s claim to these duchies.
- The Prussians and the Austrians quickly defeated Denmark. This allowed the acquisition of new territories for Prussia.
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Austria and Prussia after the taking of Denmark
- This northward expansion of Prussia was seen negatively by Austria, Prussia’s southern neighbor.
- The dispute over the duchies taken from Denmark led the Austrians to declare war on Prussia.
- The Prussians easily defeated Austria during the Austro-Prussian war in the summer of 1866.
- The Prussian military led by General Moltke had flexed its muscles by quickly becoming the master of central Europe.
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over conquests after Denmark and Austria
- Prussia was also able to add German cities such as Hannover and Frankfort to its territory.
- The small German kingdoms who remained independent of Prussia such as Bavaria were forced to become Prussia’s military allies.
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Austria loss =
- This humiliating defeat forced the Habsburgs, the Royal family of Austria, to compromise with the Hungarians who were the most powerful minority group of the multiethnic Austrian empire.
- The realm of the Habsburgs became known as Austria-Hungary.
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Franco-Prussian war
- In 1870, Bismarck convinced all the Germans to join the Prussians and defeat France.
- The Prussians and their allies easily won the Franco-Prussian war after defeating France at the Battle of Sedan.
- The Battle of Sedan was a complete debacle for the French. The officers of the army of Napoleon III proved to be incompetent.
- The French officers had highly motivated troops who were well equipped but they still proved to be unable to resist the German attack on French soil.
- The French lost 200,000 soldiers at the decisive Battle of Sedan. Whereas Prussia only lost 9,000 men (Grant, 2009).
- The French debacle was so complete at Sedan that defeat was already unavoidable for the French. The humiliation led to the downfall of Napoleon III who had surrendered to the Prussians.
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Franco-Prussian war after Battle of Sedan.
- The citizens of Paris still fought courageously to keep the Germans out of their city but they were outgunned and the hostilities ended in the winter of 1871.
- The Germans quickly moved towards Versailles to celebrate their spectacular victory. This is also, where they concluded their unification.
- William I took the title of Kaiser and Bismarck was his new chancellor.
- The Treaty of Frankfurt officially ended the war with France and it confirmed the creation of a new German empire.
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gains from Franco-Prussian war 4 Prussia
This new German empire included Alsace and Lorraine, two territories that were taken from France (these two territories caused frictions between France and Germany until the end of World War II).
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Franco-Prussian war conclusion
- The formation of a strong and wealthy German Empire in 1871 ended a period of peace in Western Europe that dated back to Napoleon’s final defeat at Waterloo in 1815.
- It would cause rivalries that put Europe on the path to World War I.
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Karl Marx
-Marx was a left-wing German economist. (left in politics usually means someone who is for government playing a large socio-economic role).
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Karl Marx book
- In 1848, Marx co-authored of The Communist Manifesto with Friedrich Engels. They wrote the book for the Communist League.
- Marx was the true creative genius who provided most of the ideas exposed in this manifesto. had previously written was capital
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Engles
-Engels was a journalist. He contributed his literary talents and his extensive knowledge of manufacture workers in Manchester, England.
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how Marx saw history!!!!
- Marx saw history as a continuous class struggle and the governments always represented the interests of the dominant social class.
- ---------
- Therefore, the religious, political and economic structures of a society reflect the values of the dominant class and allows it to maintain order and its dominant position without the constant use of brute force.
- It even leads the lower class to see the values of the dominant class as its own.
- Marx and Engels argued that the governments were defending the interests of the masters over their slaves in classical antiquity. In medieval Europe governments defended the landlords over their serfs in medieval.
- They argued that the class struggle continued in the Industrial age between the bourgeois and the proletarians.
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how Marx saw history!!!!
- Marx saw history as a continuous class struggle and the governments always represented the interests of the dominant social class.
- ---------
- Therefore, the religious, political and economic structures of a society reflect the values of the dominant class and allows it to maintain order and its dominant position without the constant use of brute force.
- It even leads the lower class to see the values of the dominant class as its own.
- Marx and Engels argued that the governments were defending the interests of the masters over their slaves in classical antiquity. In medieval Europe governments defended the landlords over their serfs in medieval.
- They argued that the class struggle continued in the Industrial age between the bourgeois and the proletarians.
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Marx view on religion
- Marx believed that religion, “the opium of the people’’, was the reason why the lower social classes peacefully endured their lamentable living conditions for most of history.
- It was therefore important to abolish religion because organized religion only gave hope of happiness according to Marx and they blocked the way for real happiness.
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how did Marx feel about the mechanization of work
- Marx was opposed to the mechanization of work. He was also scandalized by the fact that the bourgeois exploited the proletarians.
- This exploitation was possible because the bourgeois owned the means of production (i.e., the bourgeoisie had controlled over machines, manufacture and natural resources).
- This ownership led to alienation. The workers were no longer attached to the goods they produced. They had no sense of accomplishment.
- Moreover, their wages no longer reflected the value of their production.
- They were paid less than their labor is worth: ``Workers are forced to sell their labour and do not own what they produce, they are alienated from the product of their labour…workers cannot find satisfaction in their labour and are therefore alienated from the activity of production itself.`` (Ball et al., 2011, p. 132)
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How did Marx think we should move forward
- Marx encouraged the proletariat to take control of the means of production by overthrowing governments who defended the interest of the bourgeois.
- After the revolution, the proletarian government would replace capitalism by communism and create a society without class distinctions.
- According to Marx, only in a classless society could the exploitation and alienation could come to an end.
- This would create economic conditions where wealth would be shared and the economic instabilities of the capitalist system would disappear.
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futur of the economy according to Marx
According to Marx, governments would eventually disappear because they would not have to protect a dominant social class.
- Marx wanted the proletarians of the world to unite. But his weakness was that his views of human nature were overly optimistic.
- He underestimated modern forces that undermined communist systems such as nationalism and individualism that undermined the success of governments of tried to follow Marx’s ideology.
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Darwin place in history
- Darwin and Sigmund Freud changed how humans viewed themselves during the late 19th Century (i.e., they basically told the world that humans are just mammals and they are not rational. These statements shocked the masses).
- Darwin also worked in a period of great scientific innovations and great inventors such as Louis Pasteur (understanding how to eliminate germs), Dmitri Mendeleev (first periodic table), Samuel Morse (telegraph) and Alexander Graham Bell (telephone).
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Darwin Inspo
- Darwin was particularly influenced by the research of the geologist Charles Lyell who studied volcanoes and earthquakes.
- Lyell argued that continents were changing over time and that planet Earth was probably much older than a few hundred million years old (it’s over 4 billion years old).
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Darwin travels
- This long journey around the world allowed him to discover countless new species of animals and plants. Darwin called this journey the most important event of his career.
- He was particularly amazed by the Brazilian rainforest, the Andes and the Galapagos Islands.
- The trip allowed Darwin to obtain the evidence to elaborate his theory of evolution by means of natural selection.
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old boy chuck's book
-It was exposed in On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection (1859).
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old boy chuck's book
-It was exposed in On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection (1859).
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Darwin ideas
- According to Darwin, there are too many species on the planet and they produce too many newborns for the resources that are available on Earth.
- This causes the “struggle for existence” (i.e., survival of the fit). Therefore, Darwin argued that species evolve and that this evolution is driven by natural selection.
- The unfit eventually disappear because they are unable to cope with changes or with new predators: ``He argued that species evolved over time through a process of natural selection by which the strongest and the most well adapted to any given environment survived.`` (Lualdi, 2010, p. 167).
- From this process, only the best-adapted species thrived and transmitted their characteristics to the following generations.
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How do Darwin's view fit in society
-These are controversial findings because Darwin contradicted the Genesis that explains that God created Earth and all the species of plants and animals in six days and nothing changed since then. Darwin was attacking the belief of divine creation. Darwin’s findings contradict the following parts of the Old Testament:
21 So mGod created the great sea creatures and every living creature that moves, with which the waters swarm, according to their kinds, and every winged bird according to its kind. And God saw that it was good. 22 And God blessed them, saying, n“Be fruitful and multiply and fill the waters in the seas, and let birds multiply on the earth.” 23 And there was evening and there was morning, the fifth day.
24 And God said, “Let the earth bring forth living creatures according to their kinds—livestock and creeping things and beasts of the earth according to their kinds.” And it was so. 25 And God made the beasts of the earth according to their kinds and the livestock according to their kinds, and everything that creeps on the ground according to its kind. And God saw that it was good.
26 Then God said, o“Let us make man8 in our image, pafter our likeness. And qlet them have dominion over the fish of the sea and over the birds of the heavens and over the livestock and over all the earth and over every creeping thing that creeps on the earth.
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How do Darwin's view fit in society
-These are controversial findings because Darwin contradicted the Genesis that explains that God created Earth and all the species of plants and animals in six days and nothing changed since then. Darwin was attacking the belief of divine creation. Darwin’s findings contradict the following parts of the Old Testament:
21 So mGod created the great sea creatures and every living creature that moves, with which the waters swarm, according to their kinds, and every winged bird according to its kind. And God saw that it was good. 22 And God blessed them, saying, n“Be fruitful and multiply and fill the waters in the seas, and let birds multiply on the earth.” 23 And there was evening and there was morning, the fifth day.
24 And God said, “Let the earth bring forth living creatures according to their kinds—livestock and creeping things and beasts of the earth according to their kinds.” And it was so. 25 And God made the beasts of the earth according to their kinds and the livestock according to their kinds, and everything that creeps on the ground according to its kind. And God saw that it was good.
26 Then God said, o“Let us make man8 in our image, pafter our likeness. And qlet them have dominion over the fish of the sea and over the birds of the heavens and over the livestock and over all the earth and over every creeping thing that creeps on the earth.
-Darwin caused more controversy when he wrote The Descent of Man (1871) in which he said “man is the co-descendant with other mammals of a common progenitor”.
-The argument that humans have animal origins and evolved over millions of years through adaptation also contradicted the Genesis.
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Darwin's work reception
-Darwin was a religious man and he predicted that his book would shock many readers: ``The main conclusion arrived at in this work, namely that man is descended from some lowly organized from, will, I regret to think, be highly distasteful to many.`` Darwin, 1871.
-Darwin’s prediction was right. Many people were shocked because Darwin shattered the beleifs that humans are completely different from other species on Earth, that humans were created in God’s image and that humans have power over all the other species on Earth.
-Darwin’s critics claimed that he presented humans as akin to other species to confuse Christians that God created humans in his image.
–Darwin’s theory of evolution is still controversial. About a dozen court cases have taken place in the United States between 1925 and 2005 on teaching evolution in American schools.
