chapter 3

Question 1

what is a variable

Answer 1

• something that varies
• must have at least 2 levels

Question 2

what is a constant

Answer 2

• something that could potentially vary but that has only one level in the study in question

Question 3

what is a measurable variable

Answer 3

one whose levels are simply observed and recorded

Question 4

what is a manipulated variable

Answer 4

• a variable the researcher controls by assigning pps to the different levels of that variable

Question 5

what can variables be referred to as in journals

Answer 5

• constructs or conceptual variables

Question 6

what does operationalise mean

Answer 6

• turn it into a measurable or manipulated variable

Question 7

what are frequency claims

Answer 7

• describe a particular rate or degree of a single variable
• claims that mention percentage, number of people, certain groups

Question 8

what is an association claim

Answer 8

argues that one level of a variable is likely to be associated with a particular level of another variable
- they correlate
- has 2 variables
- supported by a correlational study

Question 9

why are association claims useful

Answer 9

they help us make predictions

Question 10

what are causal claims

Answer 10

• one variable is responsible for changing the other
• 2 variables covary
• use language that suggests one variable causes the other
• advice is a causal claim

Question 11

what does validity refer to

Answer 11

• the appropriateness of a conclusion or decision, a valid claim is reasonable, accurate and justifiable

Question 12

what 2 validities are used to evaluate a frequency claim

Answer 12

• construct validity
• external validity

Question 13

what is construct validity

Answer 13

refers to how well a conceptual variable is operationalised

Question 14

how do we evaluate the construct validity of a frequency claim

Answer 14

• question how well the research measured their variable of interest
• researcher must establish that each variable has been measured reliably and different levels of a variable accurately correspond to true differences

Question 15

what is an important question to ask about frequency claims

Answer 15

• how generalisable it is
• how did the researcher choose the pps
• how well do the pps represent the population

Question 16

what is external validity

Answer 16

• how well the results can be generalised to people or contexts besides those who took part

Question 17

what is statistical validity

Answer 17

• the extent to which a study’s statistical conclusions are precise, reasonable and replicable
• how well the numbers support the claim

Question 18

what is the point estimate in a frequency claim

Answer 18

• usually a percentage

Question 19

how is precision of the estimate captured in a frequency claim - statistical frequency

Answer 19

• the confidence interval
• margin of error of the estimate

Question 20

what is the confidence interval

Answer 20

• a range designed to include the true population value a high proportion of the time

Question 21

how do we use construct validity for association claims

Answer 21

• construct validity of each variable

Question 22

external validity of association claims

Answer 22

• whether it can be generalised to populations

Question 23

statistical validity of association claims

Answer 23

• considers how strong the estimated association is and how precise the estimate is, considers other estimates of the same association
• how strong is the association
• the precision of the estimated association - confidence intervals

Question 24

what is covariance

Answer 24

• the extent to which two variables are observed to go together

Question 25

what are the three criteria for causation

Answer 25

- covariance - temporal precedence - internal validity

Question 26

what is temporal precedence

Answer 26

- the method was designed so that the causal variable clearly comes first in time, before the effect variable

Question 27

what is internal validity in causal claims

Answer 27

- refers to a study's ability to eliminate alternative explanations for the association

Question 28

how can we support a causal claim

Answer 28

- a well designed experiment in which one variable is manipulated and the other is measured

Question 29

why do experiments support causal claims

Answer 29

- manipulating the causal variable ensures that it comes first - they can control alternative explanations

Question 30

what are the 4 big validities

Answer 30

- construct - statistical - external - internal