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Biology 211 > Chapter 30 & 31 > Flashcards

Chapter 30 & 31 Flashcards

(102 cards)

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1
Q

prokaryotes

A

No nucleus, unicellular, few organelles or structure components

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2
Q

eukaryotes

A

Nucleus, numerous organelles, cytoskeleton

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3
Q

Protists

A

Eukaryote, not a green plant, an animal or a fungus

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4
Q

fungi

A

filamentous body (mycelium) obtain nutrients by absorption

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5
Q

Why study Fungi

A

Nutrient recycling
Carbon Cycle
Economic uses

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6
Q

Nutrient recycling

A

Most are decomposers
This means that when they are in close association with plants the plants benefit from the increase in nutrients
Mycorrhizal- fungal root

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7
Q

Mycelia

A

formed by Actinobacteria

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8
Q

Mycelium

A

formed by a fungus

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9
Q

Carbon Cycle

A
  • Saprophytes: digest dead material
  • Land plants Cell walls contain lignin and cellulose
  • Fungi break down the wood into sugars and other organic compounds
  • Fungi do this faster than other decomposers
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10
Q

Economic impact

A
  • Food: mushrooms,
  • Decomposition of food: fungal parasites or mold
    • Chestnut trees
  • Yeast: bread, soy sauce, cheese, beer
  • Fungal enzymes: are used in food production
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11
Q

How do we study them?

A

Morphologically
Phylogenies: DNA sequencing
Isotope analysis

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12
Q

Morphology

A
  • Two growth forms: yeasts and mycelia
  • Some fungi can switch between the two forms
  • Yeasts
  • Mycelium
  • Reproductive structures
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13
Q

Yeasts

A

Single celled fungi
Form psuedo-hyphae (molds)
Fermentation
Mostly asexual

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14
Q

Mycelium

A
  • Indefinite growth
  • Largest found: 6.5 km^2 or 1310 acres
  • Mycelium are constantly changing according to food sources
  • This means that the bod shape of the fungus changes daily
  • Hyphae are very thin, but very long making fungi have the largest Vol to surface area in “multicellular” organisms
  • Mycelium are made up of Hyphae
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15
Q

Hyphae

A

Haploid
heterokaryotic: can contain several nuclei from different parents
Most are dikaryotic
Typically Hyphae are broken up by septa
Septa: wall like structures that separate hyphae , but allow for the transfer of nutrients and genes
If there are no septa than fungi are called:
Coenocytic or common celled
Are fungi multicellular?
Dehydration is common due to thin long hyphae

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16
Q

Reproductive structures

A

The only reason to expose the hyphae to the risk of dehydration sould be….?
The thick fleshy structures are made of hyphae
Four types of reproductive structures

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17
Q

Reproduction

A

Four types of reproductive structures
Swimming gametes or spores: produced by Chytrids, asexual, flagella,
Zygosporangia: produced by zygomycetes, two hyphae that ran into each other and form,two hyphae of similar gametes will not mate
Basidia: produced by basidiomycetes, spores inside mushroom, puffball, brackets
Asci: produces by Ascomycetes, spores inside cups, morels, or other outer structures

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18
Q

Fertilization

A

Typically begins with two hyphae
Two hyphae of similar genetic types will not mate
Instead of male and female you can have thousands of mating types
When two cytoplasm mix: plasogamy occurs
If the nuclei fuse: karyogamy
If nuclei do not fuse the cell is heterokaryotic

The hyphea can then split and grow either with one or two nuclei

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19
Q

Reproductive bodies

A

Puffballs
Mushrooms
Brackets
Cups
Morels
Other shapes

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20
Q

Fungi and animals

A

Both use chitin as a structural material
Flagella in animals and on Chytrids are similar
Synthesize food via glycogen

This is why funguses are harder to treat in humans than bacterial infections

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21
Q

Molecular Phylogenies

A

This is still up for debate
Microsporidians are fungi how they are related is unknown

Chytrids and Zygomycetes are paraphyletic

Glomeromycota, Basidiomycota and Ascomycota: monophyletic

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22
Q

Studies using isotopes

A

Symbiotic relationships between plants and fungi are common
Use isotopes to look at nutrient movement and categorize the relationships
Mutualistic
Parasitic
Commensal
These studies have shown that many fungi give plants P or N and plants give the fungi sugars and carbon compounds

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23
Q

Diversity

A

Mutualism types
Decomposition
Lifecycles

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24
Q

Mutualistic relationships: 2 types

A

Ectomycorrhizal Fungi (EMF):
found in basidiomychota
Sometimes in ascomycetes
Hyphae form a dense covering around root tips
Temperate regions
Use peptidase to break down amino acids

The hyphae secrete proteins suggesting a signaling between the plant and fungi

Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF):
Glomeromycota
AKA endomycorrhizal
Grow into the root tissue
80% land plant species
Tropical forests and grasslands
Phosphorus is most important uptake
Glomalin: causes organic materials to bind to soil particles

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25
Endophytes
live within the above ground parts of plants Being newly studied Mostly seem comensalistic
26
Mutualism with other species
Lichens: ascomycete and cyanobacteria or algae Go over more later ## Footnote Farmer ants: harvest and fertilize the fungus for food
27
Decomposition
Mycelium Large surface area Quick growth toward food (sahrophytic) Extracellular digestion Most organic molecules are huge Hyphea secrete enzyme that break down these materials Lignin degradation Very strong source of protection for plants Lignin peroxidase remove the protective layer from the cellulose Cellulose degradation Multiple enzymes are used to degrade cellulose step by step into glucose ## Footnote
28
Lifecycles
Four types: Chytridiomycete Zygomycete Basidiomycota Ascomycota
29
Chytridiomycete
Swimming gametes Diploid zygote Sporophyte -\> sporangium: bosy where spores are stored
30
Zygomycete
protected from cold or draught
31
Basidiomycota
produce and eject spores
32
Ascomycota
Form specialized structures to fuse together
33
Major Lineages
Microsporidia Chytrids Zygomycetes Glomeromycota Basidiomycota Ascomycota - \> lichen formers Ascomycota -\> non lichen formers
34
Microsporidia
Single celled Parasitic 1200 species Absorption Life cycles vary Honey bee and silk worm psets Attack AIDS patients Used as a pesticide for grasshoppers
35
CHytrids
Mostly aquatic Spores can germinate after 31 years Motile cells Have many cellulose enzymes Can hurt algae or live in stomachs of animals and help Parasitise mosquito larvae Are a main cause for amphibian declines
36
Zygomycetes Zygosporangium
Soil dwellers Many are saprophytes Common bread mold Fruit molds Steroids (medical use) ## Footnote
37
Glomermycota
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi Phosphorus Life cycle not well studied Very important because is common in grasslands and tropics
38
Basidiomycota
Club like or pedastal like 31000 species Can completely digest wood with lignin peridoxase Forms “rusts” on plants “smuts” on grass Has heterokaryotic mycelia ## Footnote
39
Ascomycota- lichen formers
Live in symbiosis with an algae or cyanobacterium 15000 lichens Partially parasitic Lichens are protective of the bacterium most of the time Perfume production
40
Ascomycota – non lichen formers
Found everywhere EMF associations Endophytic fungi Some are predatory on amoebe or unicellular protists Set snares or use sticky substances Ascocarp: above ground structure Cleans contaminated sites Truffles and morels Dutch elm disease
41
Green algae
typically studied in the protists They are the closest living relative to land plants They are the transitional bridge from marine to terrestrial life\ ## Footnote Therefore we study them together
42
Pps seaweed
protist not a plant Cellular complexity Morphological differences
43
Why do we study them
Ecosystem services Food Building materials ## Footnote
44
Ecosystem services
Oxygen Erosion Water retention Climate regulation Primary producers Carbon cycle ## Footnote
45
Resources
Food Fuel Wood burning Coal :decaying plant material Fiber Cotton Paper fibers Rope, cloth, Building Materials Pharmaceuticals
46
How do we study them
Morphological traits Fossil Record Molecular phylogonies
47
Morphological traits
Similarities with green algae Chloroplast pigments Thylakoid arrangement is similar Cell walls and peroxisoes Uses starch as a storage product Land plants: three categories Non Vascular plants Seedless vascular plants Seed plants
48
Fossil Record
Green algae come first 700-725 MYA Helped increase oxygen content First land plant fossils are 475 MYA Cuticles (waxy coating around spores) Silurian Devonian Explosion 416-359 MYA major plant lineage fossils Carboniferous Period (non vascular) Ferns, horsetails, mosses Gymnosperms (251-145 MYA) (seedless vascular) Flowering plants (150 MYA) (seed)
49
Fossil record
Using the fossil record Green algae became land plants Land plants then gain vascular tissue and then seeds The fossil progression leads from water to land Does the molecular phylogeny concur?
50
Plant Diversity
* Water to land transition Water retintion Upright growth Vascular tissue * Reproduction in dry conditions Gametes Nourishing offspring Alternation of generations Lifecycles Heterospory Seeds, flowers, pollination Fruits * Angiosperm diversity * Major lineages Green algae Bryophytes Seedless vascular plants Seed plants * Specific unique plant species
51
Water to land: Pros and cons
* Light Water reflects, refracts and absorbs light * Carbon Dioxide More abundant in the air Diffuse better in air * Need support * Less water Risk of dehydration
52
Water to land: water loss
Cuticle : waxy covering that prevents water and nutrient loss Stoma: covers a pore in the wax that allows intake of CO2 All land plants have stoma
53
Cuticle
waxy covering that prevents water and nutrient loss
54
Stoma
covers a pore in the wax that allows intake of CO2
55
Water to land: support
The first land plants were small and low They grew to maintain contact with the soil To solve the problem of support they needed to grow structures to move water and be rigid Vascular tissue: tissue that transports water, sugar and nutrients ## Footnote
56
Vascular Tissue
tissue that transports water, sugar and nutrients Cellulose Lignin : polymer, six carbon rings Lignin is the defining structure of vascular tissue Tracheids: thin long cells with two cell walls, lignin and pits (380 MYA) Vessel elements: shorter and wider tracheids (250-270 MYA) All of these elements are dead
57
Lignin
polymer, six carbon rings is the defining structure of vascular tissue
58
Tracheids
thin long cells with two cell walls, lignin and pits (380 MYA)
59
Vessel elements
shorter and wider tracheids (250-270 MYA)
60
Water to Land: Gametes
Gametangia: reproductive orgins in early land plants Protected gametes from drying and from damages In all land plants, other than angiosperms Antheridium: sperm producing Archegonium: egg producing
61
Gametangia
reproductive orgins in early land plants Protected gametes from drying and from damages In all land plants, other than angiosperms
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Antheridium
sperm producing
63
Archegonium
egg producing
64
Water to land: eggs
* Green algae forms the eggs and the drops it over winter to grow later * Embryophyta: egg retaining plants * The eggs formed on the plant * Called transfer cells * Alteration of generations
65
Embryophyta
egg retaining plants The eggs formed on the plant Called transfer cells Alteration of generations
66
Alternation of Generations
Gametophyte versus sporophyte Gametophyte: haploid Sporophyte: diploid
67
Life cycles: Gametophyte dominants versus Sporophyte Dominant
Leafy looking mosses: gametophyte ## Footnote Ferns and other vascular plants long leafy body types: sporophyte
68
Why transition from gametophyte to sporophyte?
Diploid can respond to stressful situation better than haploid
69
Heterospory
The production of two distinct spore producing structures and therefore two differently shaped spores Microsporangia: microspores – sperm or male gametes Megasporangia: megaspores- female gametes or eggs This lead to pollen and pollination ## Footnote Nonvascular and seedless vascular are homospory
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Microsporangia
microspores – sperm or male gametes
71
Megasporangia
megaspores- female gametes or eggs
72
Pollen grain
male gametophyte surrounded by sporopollenin Light enough to float in the air
73
Seeds
Gymnosperms: seeds but no flowers Created a portable embryo Instead of needing to always be near the opposite sex The seed give the egg protection and food 299 MYA
74
Flowers (angiosperms)
Most diverse: 250,000 species Stamens: have an anther where the microsporangia develops Carpel: contains overies Double fertilization: one sperm for fertilization and one sperm for a triploid nutritive tissue
75
Pollination
Sepals and petals protect the stamens and carpels These then evolved into the diverse array of flowers we have today Why…? To increase the chance of pollination Directed Pollination Hypothesis: natural selection favored a carrier instead of the wind nectar Correlation between flower and pollinator Strong experimental support
76
Directed Pollination Hypothesis
natural selection favored a carrier instead of the wind
77
Fruits
An ovary derived structure that encloses multiple seeds Nutritious and brightly colored Allowed seed dispersal to improve ## Footnote Note once plants could live on land the diversification of plants was centralized around reproduction
78
Angiosperm Radiation
* 125 MY most diversification has been in angiosperms * Three key adaptations: * Vessels * Flowers * Fruits * Two main classifications of angiospersm * Monocots: grasses, orchids, palms * Dicots: oaks, daises, roses * Moncots: monophyletic * Dicots: paraphyletic * Eudicots: true dicots
79
Cotyledons
first leaf formed
80
Moncots vs Dicots
Moncots: monophyletic grasses, orchids, palms Dicots: paraphyletic oaks, daises, roses
81
Green Algae
82
Key Lineages
Green Algae Non Vascular plants (bryophytes) Seedless vascular Seed Plants: gymnosperms and angiosperms
83
Green Algae Ulvophyceae
Sea lettuce Zygotes are diploid
84
Green Algae Coleochaetophyceae
Flat sheets of cells Freshwater
85
Green Algae Charophyceae
Stonewarts Crusts of CaCO3 Indicator species ## Footnote
86
Non Vascular plants (Bryophytes)
Low and sprawling Rhyzoidz: pants connected to soil, rocks, or tree bark All have flagellated sperm Spores use wind dispersal
87
Bryophytes Hepaticophyta
Liverworts - had a history Some species lack pores and have thin cuticles Soil formation No medical benefits
88
Bryophytes Bryophyta
(mosses) Peat is formed
89
Bryophytes Anthocerophyta
Hornwarts Harbor cyanobacteria
90
Bryophytes
Water stay in and air go through it bc of thin cuticles ## Footnote
91
Seedless vascular Plants
Paraphyletic Lignin Vascular tissue Sporophyte dominant Need water to connect gametophyte and sporophyte
92
Seedless Vascular Lycophyta
Club mosses Microphylls: leaves from stems Formed coal in carboniferous period
93
Seedless Vascular Psilotophyta
Two genera left No roots nutrients via fungi
94
Seedless Vascular Equisetophyta
Horsetails Water logged oxygen poor
95
Seedless vascular Pteridophyta
Ferns Frond leaves Used in landscaping and food
96
Seed Plants
Gymnosperms: red woods pines Angiosperms Seeds, pollen or fruit Seed plants: annual or perennial ## Footnote
97
Gymnosperms Cycadophyta
Not wood Sago palms
98
Gymnosperms Ginkgophyta
1 species alive today Deciduous: loses leaves
99
Gymnosperms Redwood Group
Highly rot resistant Building materials
100
Gymnosperms Pinophyta
Pines spruces and firs Largest and most abundant on planet
101
Gymnosperms Gnetophyta
Ephedrine is from this group Vines, trees and shrubs
102
Angiosperms Anthophyta
Flowering plants Included flowers and fruits Highly diverse Very abundant

Biology 211 (11 decks)

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