Chapter 5 (Macromolecules) Flashcards
1
Q
Are macromolecules the same as cells?
A
No, macromolecules are in cells
2
Q
What do organic compounds consist of?
A
H hydrogen covalently bounded to C carbon atoms
3
Q
What do organic compounds form?
A
Linear and ring-shaped backbones
4
Q
What are the other common elements in organic compounds?
A
CHNOPSN - nitrogenO - oxygenP - phosphorusS - sulfur
5
Q
What are O, N, P, S linked to?
A
Carbon backbone of cellular organic compounds
6
Q
What is CO2 considered as?
A
inorganic (not an organic carbon compound)
7
Q
What dofunctional groups attached to the carbon backbone pass on?
A
Diverse properties to organic compounds that are the characteristics of life
8
Q
What can only living cells assemble?
A
Large organic compounds called macromolecules and polymers
9
Q
What are polymers?
A
large molecules made of monomers
10
Q
List the 4 carbon compound groups (contain carbon as fundamental element):
A
4 macromolecules1. Complex carbohydrates2. Lipids3. Proteins4. Nucleic acids
11
Q
What is metabolism?
A
Chemical reactions that occur in the cell
12
Q
Describe metabolism
A
Transformation of substances into energy or materials
13
Q
What are the 2 types of metabolism?
A
AnabolismCatabolism
14
Q
What is anabolism?
A
A synthesis (building) rxn
15
Q
Describe the process of anabolism
A
Linkage of monomers to form polymers by dehydration synthesis, and water is produced/released
16
Q
Which process is this? [Image]
A
Anabolism
17
Q
True or False: Anabolism requires input of energy
A
True, because building requires energy
18
Q
True or False: Catabolism requires input of energy
A
False, because breaking “releases energy”
19
Q
What is catabolism?
A
breakdown rxn
20
Q
Describe catabolism:
A
Macromolecules are broken down/digested to their respective monomers by hydrolysis, water is used as a reactant/added
21
Q
What are organic compounds?
A
Compounds that contain carbon and are found in living organisms.
22
Q
Which process of metabolism is this? [Image]
A
Catabolism
23
Q
Give me an example of catabolic rxn
A
Digestion - hydrolysis of food and hydrolysis of macromolecules by lysosome in white blood cells
24
Q
Does cellular respiration involve hydrolysis reactions?
A
No, it is an overall catabolic process but doesn’t involve hydrolysis
25
Flow chart of the hydrolysis of macromolecules in diet
[Image]
26
What is the most abundant macromolecule?
Carbohbydrates
27
What is the general composition of carbohydrates?
CHO (N in chitin)
28
What are the types of carbohydrates? (3)
- monosaccharides (sugars)- disaccharides- polyssaccharides
29
What is the composition of monosaccharides (sugars)?
(CH2O)n- n for number of carbon (C)
30
What are the monomers of carbohydrates?
monosaccharides
31
Give me examples of monosaccharides (4)
- glucose- fructose- glucosamine- galactose
32
How many carbons does glucose have?
6
33
What is the linear and ring form of glucose?
[Image] [Image]
34
Are disaccharides considered polymer?
NO
35
What are disaccharides made of?
2 sugars (monosaccharides)
36
Function of disaccharides
Store energy
37
Examples of disaccharides: (3)
- maltose (beer)- sucrose (table sugar)- lactose (milk)
38
Synthesis of maltose
bonding of two glucose - carbon 1 and carbon 4 links [Image]
39
Synthesis of sucrose
Glucose + fructose (fructose 5 sided ring) [Image]
40
Which type of carbohydrate is considered the only true polymer?
Complex carbohydrates or polysaccharides
41
How are polysaccharides made?
dehydration synthesis of multiple monomers
42
What are the functions of polysaccharides? (2)
- storage of energy- structural role in the cell
43
What type of glucose is used for energy and chemical storage?
alpha-glucose
44
What are the polysaccharides used for energy storage? (2)
- glycogen (animals, stored in liver cells)- starch (plants, stores in chloroplasts)
45
What type of glucose is used for structural support?
beta-glucose
46
What polysaccharides provides structural support in plant cell walls?
Cellulose
47
What structural carbohydrate is found in the cell walls of fungi?
Chitin (CHON)
48
What is chitin?
chain of glucosamine
49
What is the main monomer of polysaccharides?
Glucose
50
What is the structure of alpha-glucose?
H on top in the first carbon [Image]
51
What is the structure of beta-glucose?
H on the bottom of the first carbon [Image]
52
What type of glucose are starch and glycogen (storage) made of? What is the structure of starch?
- alpha-glucose- OH on the aligned on the bottom [Image]
53
What type of glucose are cellulose made of? What is the structure of cellulose?
- beta-glucose- alternating OH positions [Image]
54
Which group of macromolecule isn’t a true polymer? Why?
Lipids, but due to their size they are considered macromolecules. They don’t have a single repeating monomer, that have more than one type of subunit!
55
What is the characteristic of lipids?
Heterogeneous, hydrophobic (water fearing, insoluble in water)
56
What is the general composition of lipids?
CHO (N and P in phospholipids)
57
What are the two main functions of lipids?
1. Energy storage2. Structural
58
What is the main lipid used for energy storage?
Triacylglycerides (triglycerides) ➡️ fat made of 3 fatty acids and one glycerol
59
What are the two types of energy-storing lipids, and where are they found?
• Fats – Found in animals, used for insulation and protection.• Oils – Found in plants.
60
What type of lipid is the main structural component of cell membranes?
Phospholipds
61
What is a characteristic of phospholipids?
They are amphipatic
62
Why are phospholipids amphipatic?
They have two parts:• Hydrophilic (water-loving) heads• Hydrophobic (water-fearing) tails
63
Which type of lipid consists of four fused carbon rings?
Steroid
64
What are the types of steroid lipids? (2)
- cholesterol- steroid hormones
65
What is the function of cholesterol in the body? (3)
• Structural component of cell membranes• Precursor for steroid hormones (base for forming)• Component of bile salts (aiding in fat digestion) [Image]
66
What is the function of steroid hormones?
Regulate metabolism and reproduction, etc
67
What lipid-based molecules act as cofactors required for absorbing light?
Retinal and carotenoids
68
What does this represent? [Image]
Fat molecule (triglyceride) by dehydration synthesis that combines 1 glycerol and 3 fatty acids w/ Easter linkages (covalent bond that forms between a hydroxyl (-OH) group and a carboxyl (-COOH) group)
69
Identify saturated and unsaturated fat: [Image]
Left: saturatedRight: unsaturated
70
What is the main structural difference between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids?
• Saturated: No C=C (double) bonds.• Unsaturated: 1 or more C=C (double) bonds.
71
What is the shape of saturated vs. unsaturated fatty acids?
• Saturated: Linear.• Unsaturated: Bent/Kinked due to double bonds.
72
How do saturated and unsaturated fatty acids behave at room temperature?
• Saturated: Solid at room temperature.• Unsaturated: Liquid at room temperature.
73
What are the typical sources of saturated vs. unsaturated fatty acids?
• Saturated: animal fats & butter (mostly).• Unsaturated: vegetable oils.
74
What are the main components of phospholipids?
1. Hydrophilic head (contains phosphate group).2. Hydrophobic tails (fatty acid chains).3. Glycerol backbone (Holds everything tgt)
75
Where are phospholipids found in?
cell membrane in all cells
76
What structure do phospholipids form in cell membrane?
Bilayer - 2 rows parallel to each other with hydrophilic head facing water and hydrophobic tail meeting inside
77
Is there water inside the cell membrane?
No, the hydrophobic tails creates a barrier between the inside and outside of the cell
78
What is a micelle?
circular structure made of phospholipids hydrophilic head outward and hydrophobic tails inward
79
What is the difference between the cell membrane and the cell wall?
• Cell membrane: all cells (phospholipid bilayer)• Cell wall: in plants & fungi (structural support)
80
Is cholesterol considered a hormone?
No, its an exception from all steroids
81
What are the most diverse macromolecules (w/ diverse functions)?
Proteins - polypeptides
82
Composition of proteins
CHNOS (only ones with sulfur!)
83
Monomers of proteins - polypeptides
20 different amino acids (aa)
84
What does each aa have?
A side chain that gives it unique properties and affects the protein’s function [Image]
85
Synonym of side chains
R group
86
What are the bonds between aa called?
peptide bond
87
What are peptide bonds?
N-C bond (protein)
88
Carboxyl and amino group components
Carboxyl: COOHAmino: NH2Picture of amino acid [Image]
89
What is infinite?
number of different proteins
90
What does the number of proteins depend on? (3)
N: number of aaC: composition of aaS: sequence of aa
91
SPF?
different sequence ➡️ different proteins ➡️ different functions
92
How is the shape of a protein obtained?
folding of aa sequence into secondary, tertiary and quaternary structures
93
Which structure of aa sequence is this? [Image]
Primary structure
94
What’s the orientation of proteins?
N ➡️ C
95
Which aa sequence structure is this? [Image]
Secondary
96
Which structure of aa sequence is this? [Image]
Tertiary - some proteins may contain only alpha helices, only beta sheets, or a mix of both.
97
Which structure of aa sequence does this represent? [Image]
Quaternary - 2 or more polypeptides (proteins)
98
Are the 4 structures a cycle?
NO! Each level builds on the previous one but does not loop back.• Primary → Secondary → Tertiary → Quaternary (if applicable).• Once a protein reaches its functional form, it usually stays that way unless it is denatured (unfolded due to heat, pH, or chemicals).
99
At which structure is the protein considered functional?
At the tertiary (if single polypeptide, e.g. myoglobin) or quaternary (multiple polypeptides, e.g. hemoglobin)- at these structure the protein is finished in 3D form!
100
Primary structure: (2)
- aa sequence form N (amino) to C (Carboxyl) terminus- peptide bonds
101
Secondary structures: (2)
- alpha-helices and beta-strands- held tgt by H-bonds between CO (Carboxyl) and NH (amino) of backbone [Image]
102
Tertiary structure: (2)
- 3D shape- held by interactions between R groups of aa (including S-S bonds)
103
What are SS bonds? Which structures?
- Strong Shape bonds- tertiary and quaternary structure
104
Do hydrogen bonds form between alpha helices and beta sheets?
No! H-bonds form within alpha helices and between beta strands, not between the two structures.
105
Quaternary structure: (2)
- complex of 2 or + polypeptides- also held by interactions between R groups of aa
106
List the 8 functions of protein:
ESSTHRCDE: EnzymesS: StructuralS: StorageT: TransportH: HormonesR: ReceptorsC: Contractile and motileD: Defensive
107
What do functions of proteins depend on?
on the shape and shape ➡️ aa sequence
108
What do names of enzymes end with?
ase
109
What do enzymes do?
Increases the rate of rxn
110
Give me example of enzymes (2)
- cellulase (break down the cellulose molecule) in green- lipase (break down fat in your diet) in rainbow [Image] [Image]
111
What do enzymes with structural function do?
strengthen and support tissues and cells
112
Give me examples of structural proteins (2)
- collagen (building of joint cartilage)- keratin (helps form hair, nails and your skin's outer layer) [Image] [Image]
113
What do storage enzyme do?
nourish embryo [Image]
114
Give me an example of storage protein:
ovalbumin (protein of egg white - liquid)
115
What do transport enzymes do? (2)
- transport gases and minerals in blood- transport across membranes of cells
116
Give me the name of the protein that transports gases and minerals in blood
hemoglobin (red blood cells) [Image]
117
Give me the names of the membrane associated proteins that transport molecules across cell membranes (3)
- Pumps- Channels- Transporters
118
What do hormonal enzymes do?
maintain homeostasis
119
Name a hormonal enzymes:
insulin
120
What do receptor enzymes do?
Sense and transduce (to pass a message inside the cell) environmental signals
121
Name a receptor enzymes:
SynapseTrick! Sense ➡️ synapse
122
What do contractile and motile enzymes do?
muscle contraction and cell movement
123
name contractile and motile enzymes (2):
Actin and myosin(TRICK: Action and movement)
124
What do defensive enzymes do?
fight diseases and foreign molecules
125
Give me example of defensive enzymes:
Antibodies - immunoglobulins (immuno ➡️ Immune system)
126
Which macromolecule contains information?
Nucleic acids
127
Composition of nucleic acids:
CHNOPS
128
What are the monomers of nucleic acids?
nucleotides
129
What are the bond between nucleotides called?
phosphodiester
130
What are the two forms of nucleic acids?
- DNA- RNA
131
DNA = ?
deoxyribonucleic acids
132
What are DNA made of?
4 different deoxyribonulceotides ➡️ Monomer of DNA
133
Function of DNA?
Storage of genetic information
134
RNA = ?
ribonucleic acids
135
What are RNA made of?
4 different ribonucleotides ➡️ Monomer of RNA
136
What is the function of RNA?
protein synthesis (making, creating proteins)
137
Give me an example of a nucleotide that has a central role in metabolism as energy carriers
ATP ➡️ adenosine triphosphate
138
Difference in overall structure of DNA and RNA:
DNA: ds (double stranded) ➡️ Double helix, antiparallel, complementaryRNA: SS (single stranded) [Image]
139
Difference in monomers DNA and RNA:
DNA: deoxyribonucleotidesRNA: ribonucleotides
140
Difference of pentose sugar DNA and RNA:
DNA: deoxyribose (OH and H)RNA: ribose (x2 OH) [Image]
141
Difference of the base between DNA and RNA:
DNA: GATCRNA: GAUC
142
Difference in functions for DNA and RNA:
DNA: store genetic informationRNA: genetic info for making proteins in cytoplasm
143
Where are DNA and RNA found in the cell?
✔ DNA: Nucleus✔ RNA: Cytoplasm
144
What is chromatin?
✔ DNA packaged with proteins✔ Forms chromosomes [Image] [Image]
145
Name the base for DNA ➡️ GATC
G ➡️ GuanineA ➡️ AdenineT ➡️ ThymineC ➡️ Cytosine
146
Name the bases for RNA ➡️ GAUC
SAME AS DNA instead U replaces TU ➡️ Uracil
147
What is the direction of a DNA strand?
5’ → 3’
148
What do we find on carbon 5’ and 3’?
- Phosphate on 5’ carbon- Sugar + OH on 3’ carbon
149
What is the bas pair rule for DNA?
A - TC - G
150
Why are the two strands of DNA considered antiparallel?
becaus their orientation is opposite5’ ➡️ 3’3’ ➡️ 5’
151
What are double helix?
form of DNA [Image]
152
How many combinations of aa are possible in a polypeptide (protein)?
20^nn = # of aa in protein
153
What does this represent? [Image]
ATP
154
What are the three components of ATP
- adenine- ribose- 3 phosphates [Image]
155
What is the role of ATP?
energy currency of cell ➡️ It gives cells the power to do work
156
What is the hierarchy of DNA/RNA structure?
1. Polynucleotide/Nucleic Acid ➡️ long chain of nucleotides linked tgt2. Nucleotides ➡️ Pentose sugar + Nitrogeneous bases + Phosphate group3. Nitrogenous bases and sugars ➡️ GATC/GAUC and Deoxyribose/Ribose [Image] [Image] [Image]
157
What are the three components of nucleotides?
- phosphate group- nitrogenous base- sugar [Image]
158
What is the name of this reaction? [Image]
Hydrolysis of ATP
159
Explain the hydrolysis of ATP: (3)
- ATP + water ➡️ ADP + P (inorganic phosphate) + release of Gibbs free energy- It’s inorganic because its not attached to a carbon-based molecule- ADP ➡️ because there’s not 3 phosphate but only two attached to the ribose and adenine ➡️ diphosphate
160
What is ATP hydrolysis associated with?
release of Gibbs free energy
161
What types of cellular work does ATP power, require energy? (3)
1. Chemical work → Powers anabolic reactions (building molecules)2. Mechanical work → cellular mvt, muscle contraction3. Transport → molecules across CM
162
Describe ATP cylce
1️⃣ ATP is broken down through hydrolysis with water → Releases energy for the cell (for 3 types of cellular work)2️⃣ ADP & Pi are recycled → Energy from food recharges ATP.3️⃣ The cycle repeats so the cell always has energy [Image]
163
Name for releasing and input of Gibbs free energy
Exergonic ➡️ release G energyEndergonic ➡️ input of G energy
164
What is the backbone of proteins?
[Image]
165
What are pyrimidines?
single rings
166
Name the 3 pyrimidines
CUT
167
What are purines?
double ring
168
Name the 2 purines
AG
169
To which category of macromolecules do these belong and are they monomer polymers or others? [Image]
✅Carbohydrate➡️ lactose is a disaccharide SO NOT A POLYMER ➡️ only polysaccharides are true polymers (starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin)✅ others
170
To which categories of macromolecules do these belong and is it a monomer polymer or others? [Image]
✅ protein (polypeptide)💡Hint: peptide bond, R group of aa (side chains) and OH bonds between carboxyl and amino ends in secondary structure✅ polymer (repeating amino acids)
171
To which category of macromolecules do this belong and is it a polymer monomer or others? [Image]
✅ nucleic acid✅ in the picture, these are the monomers of nucleic acids
172
To which category of macromolecules does this belong and is it a polymer monomer or others? [Image]
✅ lipid💡hint there Is a carbon double bond in the middle, which means that it’s a unsaturated fatty acid✅ Others, because lipids are not true polymers they are not made of the same repeating monomer
