Chapter 5- The Self: Understanding Ourselves in a Social Context

Question 1

Who has self concept

Answer 1

Rudimentary self-concept
–Some primates
–Humans at 18 to 24 months

Question 2

Child’s self-concept

Answer 2

–Concrete
–References to characteristics like age, sex,
neighborhood, and hobbies

Question 3

Maturing self-concept

Answer 3

–Less emphasis on physical characteristics
–More emphasis on psychological states and
how other people judge us

Question 4

The Study - Participants were to imagine seeing a friend
they had not seen in 40 years.

Answer 4

Given a list of ways their friend had changed, they were
asked to rate each change as to how much the change
would alter their view of the friend’s true self.
* Ranking scale: 0% (no change on true self) to 100%
(completely alter true self).
* Result: Changes in morality (e.g., cruelty to others) would
alter the true self more than other changes. Changes in
perceptual ability (e.g., vision) would have little impact..

Question 5

Independent view of the self

Answer 5

–Defines self through own internal thoughts,
feelings, and actions and not other people’s
–Independence and uniqueness valued
–Held in many Western cultures

Question 6

Interdependent view of the self

Answer 6

–Defines self through relationships to other
people
–Recognizes that others’ thoughts, feelings,
and actions affect one’s behavior
–Connectedness and interdependence valued
–Uniqueness frowned on
–Held in many Asian and non-Western cultures

Question 7

*Four main functions of self control

Answer 7

– Self-knowledge:
▪The way we understand who we are and organize
this information
– Self-control:
▪The way we make plans and execute decisions
Impression management:
▪The way we present ourselves to others and get
them to see us as we want to be seen
– Self-esteem:
▪The way we maintain positive views of ourselves

Question 8

Introspection

Answer 8

–The process whereby people look inward and
examine their own thoughts, feelings, and
motives

Question 9

*People do not rely on introspection very
often.
*Why not?

Answer 9

–Not always pleasant to think about ourselves
–Reasons for our feelings and behavior can be
outside conscious awareness

Question 10

Focusing on the Self:
Self-Awareness Theory

Answer 10

*The idea that when people focus their
attention on themselves, they evaluate and
compare their behavior to their internal
standards and values

Question 11

Ways to turn off “internal spotlight” on oneself:

Answer 11

▪Alcohol abuse
▪Binge eating
▪Sexual masochism
*Not all means of escaping the self are
damaging.
–Religious expression
–Spirituality

Question 12

Self-focus is not always damaging or
aversive.

Answer 12

–Example: If you have experienced a major
success
–Can also remind you of your sense of right
and wrong

Question 13

It can be difficult to know why we feel the
way we do.

Answer 13

–What is it about your sweetheart that made
you fall in love?
–How much does sleep affect your state of
mind?
–What really determines what mood you’re in?

Question 14

Causal theories

Answer 14

–Theories about the causes of one’s own
feelings and behaviors; often we learn such
theories from our culture

Question 15

Problem

Answer 15

–Schemas and theories are not always correct.
Can lead to incorrect judgments about the
causes of our actions

Question 16

Self-perception theory

Answer 16

–The theory that when our attitudes and
feelings are uncertain or ambiguous, we infer
these states by observing our behavior and
the situation in which it occurs
*Infer inner feelings from behavior
–Only when not sure how we feel
*People judge whether their behavior
–Really reflects how they feel
–Or is the result of a situation that made them
act that way

Question 17

*Stanley Schachter (1964)

Answer 17

–Experience of emotion is similar to other types
of self-perception
–Infer our emotions by observing our behavior
–We experience emotions in a two-step self-
perception process:
1. Experience physiological arousal
2. Seek an appropriate explanation for it

Question 18

Research question

Answer 18

–Given the same degree of physiological
arousal, will people feel different emotions
depending on their environment?

Question 19

Cover story: Injection of Suproxin, test of
vision

Answer 19

–IV 1: Physiological arousal
▪Epinephrine informed
–(shake, heart pound, face flush)
▪Epinephrine ignorant
–(mild, harmless, no side effects)
▪Placebo
–(saline, mild, harmless, no side effects)
–IV 2: Environmental cues (mood of “stooge”)
▪Euphoric/happy (playing games)
▪Angry (insulting questionnaire)
–DV: Participant’s mood
–Epinephrine-informed group
▪Did not become angry when exposed to angry
stooge
–Had alternate explanation for their arousal (the drug)
–Epinephrine-ignorant group
▪Became euphoric
–Joined stooge in playing game

Question 20

Focusing on the Self:
Self-Awareness Theory

Answer 20

The idea that when people focus their
attention on themselves, they evaluate and
compare their behavior to their internal
standards and values

Question 21

Schachter’s theory

Answer 21

–We experience emotions in a two-step self-
perception process:
1. Experience physiological arousal
2. Seek an appropriate explanation for it

Question 22

Implications

Answer 22

–Emotions are somewhat arbitrary.
–Emotions depend on our explanations for
arousal.

Question 23

To what extent do the results found by
Schachter and Singer (1962) generalize to
everyday life?

Answer 23

–Do people form mistaken emotions in the
same way as participants in that study did?
–In everyday life, one might argue, people
usually know why they are aroused.

Question 24

Misattribution of arousal

Answer 24

–Making mistaken inferences about what is
causing them to feel the way they do

Question 25

Finding the Wrong Cause: Misattribution of Arousal

Answer 25

Arousal from one source (e.g., caffeine, exercise, a fright) can enhance the intensity of how the person interprets other feelings (e.g., attraction to someone).

Question 26

Intrinsic motivation

Answer 26

–Engage in an activity because of enjoyment and interest, not external rewards or pressures

Question 27

*Extrinsic motivation

Answer 27

–Engage in an activity because of external reasons, not because of enjoyment and interest

Question 28

Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation

Answer 28

*Many teachers or parents reward kids for good grades with compliments, candy, gold stars, or toys. *Other programs reward kids for reading books. *But do these programs increase or decrease a child’s love of reading?

Question 29

We have to consider the effects of rewards on people’s thoughts about:

Answer 29

–Themselves –Their self-concept –Their motivation to read in the future

Question 30

Danger of reward programs

Answer 30

–Reading for rewards, not because it’s actually enjoyable

Question 31

Overjustification effect:

Answer 31

–The tendency of people to view their behavior as caused by compelling extrinsic reasons, making them underestimate the extent to which it was caused by intrinsic reasons

Question 32

Task-contingent rewards:

Answer 32

–Rewards that are given for performing a task, regardless of how well the task is done

Question 33

*Performance-contingent rewards:

Answer 33

–Rewards that are based on how well we perform a task

Question 34

Avoiding over-justification when using rewards

Answer 34

. Rewards will undermine interest only if interest was initially high. 2. The type of reward makes a difference. ▪Performance-contingent rewards are less damaging to intrinsic interest

Question 35

Fixed mindset:

Answer 35

–The idea that we have a set amount of an ability that cannot change

Question 36

Growth mindset:

Answer 36

The idea that our abilities are malleable qualities that we can cultivate and grow

Question 37

Mindset affects motivation

Answer 37

–Fixed mindset more likely to give up and do poorly on subsequent tasks after failure

Question 38

Self-Concept Does Not Develop in a Solitary Context

Answer 38

Self-concept shaped by people around us

Question 39

How do we use others to define ourselves?

Answer 39

–Measure our own abilities and attitudes by comparing to other people ▪If you donate $50 to charity and find out your friend donates $10, you can feel generous. ▪If you find out your friend donated $100, you might not feel as generous!

Question 40

Social Comparison Theory

Answer 40

–The idea that we learn about our own abilities and attitudes by comparing ourselves to other people

Question 41

The theory revolves around two important questions:

Answer 41

–When do you engage in social comparison? –With whom do you choose to compare yourself?

Question 42

When do you engage in social comparison?

Answer 42

–No objective standard exists to measure against –When we experience uncertainty –Example: New office donation program, not sure what amount would be generous, you are especially likely to compare yourself to others

Question 43

With whom do you choose to compare yourself?

Answer 43

–Initial impulse: anyone who is around ▪Occurs quickly and automatically

Question 44

Goal: know the furthest level to which we can aspire

Answer 44

–Upward social comparison: ▪Comparing to people who are better on a particular ability

Question 45

Goal: feel better about yourself –Downward social comparison: ▪Comparing to people who are worse on a particular trait or ability

Answer 45

–Downward social comparison: ▪Comparing to people who are worse on a particular trait or ability

Question 46

We adopt other people’s views in some circumstances

Answer 46

–“Looking glass self” (Cooley, 1902) ▪We see ourselves and the social world through the eyes of other people

Question 47

Social tuning:

Answer 47

The process whereby people adopt another person’s attitudes

Question 48

Self-control:

Answer 48

–The ability to subdue immediate desires to achieve long-term goals

Question 49

Strategies to Improve Self-Control

Answer 49

*Form implementation impression *Arrange environments *Ensure well-rested –Depletion effect

Question 50

Impression Management:

Answer 50

–The attempt by people to get others to see them as they want to be seen

Question 51

Ingratiation:

Answer 51

–Flattering, praising, and generally trying to make ourselves likable to another person, often of higher status

Question 52

Self-handicapping:

Answer 52

–Creating obstacles and excuses for ourselves –If we do poorly on a task, we can avoid blaming ourselves.

Question 53

Behavioral self-handicapping

Answer 53

People act in ways that reduce the likelihood of success so that if they fail, they can blame it on obstacles rather than ability. ▪Example: pulling an all-nighter before a test

Question 54

Reported self-handicapping

Answer 54

▪Rather than creating obstacles to success, people devise ready-made excuses in case they fail. ▪Example: Complaining about not feeling well when you take a test

Question 55

Culturally universal

Answer 55

–Desire to manage image we present

Question 56

Cultural differences

Answer 56

–Kinds of images we want to present ▪e.g., “saving face” is important in Asian cultures