Chapter 6: The Human Body Flashcards
(268 cards)
1
Q
What is anatomy
A
Focuses on physical structure
2
Q
What is Physiology
A
Functions and activities of biology components
3
Q
What is pathophysiology
A
Study of functional changes that accompany
4
Q
What is topographic anatomy
A
landmarks of the body that serve as guide to the structures that lie beneath them
5
Q
How do you the imagine the patient standing?
A
Anatomic position, palms and feet facing toward you
6
Q
Frontal/Coronal plane
A
Divides the body into front or back portions
7
Q
Sagittal/lateral
A
Divides body into lft and right but not necesarily even portions
8
Q
Midsagittal plane (midline)
A
equally divides body into left and right halves
9
Q
Transverse (axial) plane
A
divides the body into a top and bottom portion
10
Q
Function of the skeletal system
A
Structural support for body’s weight, framework to attach soft tissues and internal organs, protecting vital organs, producing red blood cells (the red marrow within the internal cavities of many bones produces red blood cells.
11
Q
How many bones make up the skeletal system
A
206 bones
12
Q
What is the axial skeleton?
A
It forms the longitudinal axis of the body, from the skill to the tailbone
13
Q
Coccyx
A
the tail bone
14
Q
What is an appendicular skeleton
A
Compromises upper and lower extremities and the points by which they connect with the axial skeleton
15
Q
What skeletons does the pelvis include
A
Axial and appendicular skeleton
16
Q
joint
A
where 2 bones meet
17
Q
what is a ligament
A
stabilize joints and connect from bone to bone (connects bone to bone)
18
Q
Cartilage
A
semi-rigid but flexible tissue that covers and cushions articulating bones (cushion between bones)
19
Q
tendons
A
attach bone to muscle (bone to muscle)
20
Q
what are symphyses
A
joints that have grown to form a very stable connection. only slight motion is possible
21
Q
joint capsule
A
bone ends of a joint held together by a joint capsule
22
Q
what allows the ends of bones to glide easily
A
articular cartilage
23
Q
What is the synovial membrane responsible for
A
making synovial fluid, which allows ends of bones to slide over each other
24
Q
How is a joint movement determined
A
the extent to which the ligaments hold the bone ends together, and the configuration of the bone ends
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What is a shoulder joint
it is a ball and socket joint and allows rotation and bending
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what is a hinge joint
finger joints, elbow, and knee are hinge joints, with motion restricted to flexion and extension, rotation is not possible
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how many bones does the skill have
28 bones
28
what are the three bone groups of the skull
cranium, facial bones, and three small bones in the hear
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what does the cranium bone contain
comprised of frontal bones, temporal bones, parietal bones, occipital bone, ethmoid bone, and sphenoid bone. these bones together protect the brain
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What does the foramen magnum serve as
the passageway for the spinal cord to connect with the brain and descend into the vertebral column
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What does the 14 facial bones include
Upper jawbones (maxillae), lower jawbone (mandible), cheek bones (zygomas)
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What is an orbit
cavity formed by joined by multiple facial bones
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What is the upper third of the nose made of
very short nasal bones
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What do the remaining 2/3rd of the nose made up of
flexible cartilage
35
How many vertebrae make up the spinal column
33 vertebrae
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Cervical Spine
first 7 vertebrae in the neck
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Thoracic spine
The next 12 vertebrae, one pair of ribs is attached to each of the thoracic vertebrae
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Lumbar spine
The next 5 vertebrae after the thoracic spine
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Sacrum
the five sacral vertebrae are fused together to form one bone called the sacrum
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Coccyx
last four vertebrae fused together
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Ligaments and intervertebral disks
allow motion so the trunk can bend forward and back, and they allow for rotation and lateral movement
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Thorax
formed by the 12 thoracic vertebrae and their 12 pairs of ribs
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Sternum
midline of the chest
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Where does the trachea enter the chest
The superior border of the sternum forms the easily palpable sternal notch where the trachea enters the chest
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Upper section of sternum
manubrium
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Rest of sternum
The body compirises the rest of it
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Xiphoid process
the narrow, cartilaginous tip
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pectoral girdle
the supporting structure for the arms that connects to the axial skeleton, comprises the clavicles and scalpulae also known as the shoulder girdle
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clavicle
collarbone, it is lateral to the sternum and anterior to the scapula
50
scapula
shoulder blade
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humerus
supporting bone of the upper arm
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the humerus articulates with two bones that make up the forearm, what are they
radius on lateral thumb side, ulna on medial, little finger side
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carpals
8 bones that make up the wrist
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what and how many extend from the carpals
five metacarpals, forming the palm of the hand
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What does the metacarpals articulate with
bones of the fingers, phalanges
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how many phalanges does the thumb have
2
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how many phalanges does the remaining 4 fingers contain
3 phalanges each
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the pelvic girdle has 2 large hip bones, what are they called
coxae, which are the sacrum and coccyx
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What is each coxa formed by (3 bones)
ilium, ischium, pubis
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pubic symphysis
joins left and right public bones
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what does the pelvis articulate with
the femur bone of the leg at the hip joint, or acetabulum
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acetabulum
the depression on the lateral pelvis where its three components bones join, in which the femoral head fits snugly
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greater trochanter
bony prominence on the proximal lateral side of the thigh, below the hip joint
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lesser trochanter
medial side of the femur, inferior to the femoral neck
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trochanters
serves as anchor points for the major muscles of the thigh
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femur
longest and strongest bones in body, its rounded superior end is the femoral head
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femoral head
articulates with the acetabulum of pelvic circle by a ball and socket joint
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fibula
lateral side of lower leg, ankle joint includes protrusions from the broadened distal ends of the tibia and fibula
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malleous
on the lateral side the malleous can be palpated
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tibia
the larger bone out of the tibia and fibula, articulates with the inferior end of the femur at the knee joint
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what is the foot comprised of
tarsals, metatarsals, phalanges
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what doe the 7 tarsals include
the calcaneous, talus
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How is the ankle formed
tibia and fibula articulate with the talus
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what is the top of the foot
dorsum/dorsal surface
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three types of muscles
skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, cardiac muscle
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involuntary muscle
smooth and cardiac
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the musculoskeletal system
relationship between bone and muscle
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muscles of the upper arm
biceps muscle, located on the anterior aspect of the humerus
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biceps
bends the elbow by moving the lower part of the arm towards the head
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what muscle does the biceps compete with
triceps
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what happens to the biceps and triceps as the arm is extended
the biceps work to slow down the movement of the tricep
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how many muscles in the system
more than 600
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what is the function of the musculoskeletal system
produce heat to maintain homeostasis, protect underlying structures such as the internal organs
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What is the respiratory system responsible for
set of organs responsible for breathing, respiration, and the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide
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what is included in the respiratory system
nose, mouth, throat, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, lungs, diaphram
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where are the structures of the upper airway located
anteriorly at the midline
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nasopharynx
upper section of the pharynx connecting with the nasal cavity of the soft palate
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oropharynx
section of the pharynx at the back of the throat, from the soft palate to the U shaped hyoid bone near the base of the tongue
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what does the base of the larynx indicate
at the base, the vocal cords mark the transition point from the upper airway to the lower airway
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what does the nose and mouth lead to
oropharynx
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what is the pharynx composed of
oropharynx, nasopharynx, and laryngopharnyx
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where does air proceed to
anteriorly positioned larynx and trachea
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epiglottis
because the trachea allows air to proceed the epiglottis is responsible for keeping the food away from entering the trachea. it covers the larynx during swallowing and lifts for air passage when breathing. it is leaf shaped
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thyroid cartilage (adams apple)
anterior of the midline portion of the neck (anterior part of the larynx)
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how does the thyroid cartilage work
tiny muscles open and close vocal cords and control tension on them, pitch of sound changes as it opens and closes
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what is between the thyroid and cricoid cartilege
cricothyroid membrane
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cricothyroid membrane
felt as a depression in the midline of the neck just inferior to the thyroid cartilage
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where does the trachea end and what does it do
ends at carina and divides into two smaller tubes
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what are the two tubes split at the carina
right and left main stem bronchi
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what does each main stem bronchus do
immediately branches within the lung into smaller airways
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left lung
has 2 lobes, upper and lower lobe
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how are the lungs supplied air
right and left main stem brocnchi
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what is it are the small airways called when each bronchus enters its respective lung and branches into smaller and smaller airways
bronchicoles
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the bronchioles end in about 700 million tiny, grapelike clusters or air sacs called _____________-
alveoli
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what happens within these alveolar sacs
oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchange between the lungs and the bloodstream
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what does the walls of the alveoli contain
network of tiny blood vessels (pulmonary capillaries) that carry carbon dioxide from the body to the lungs (for removal through exhalation) an oxygen from the lungs to the body
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what covers each lung
smooth tissue called pleura
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where else can pleura be found besides covering each lung
lines the inside of the chest cavity
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visceral pleura
covering lungs
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parietal pleura
lining chest wall
111
pleural/potential space
under normal conditions, does not exist, but it is between the parietal and visceral pleura.
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how many lobes and what does hte right lung have
3 lobes, and the upper, middle, and lower lobe
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diaphragm
primary muscle for breathing
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what does the diaphragm do
divides the thorax from the abdomen and is pierced by the greater vessels and the esophagus
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muscles of breathing
neck (cervical), intercostal, abdominal, pectoral muscles
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how does the diaphragm and intercostal muscles act when inhalation
their muscles contract, which enlarges the chest cavity
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what happens as the volume of the chest cavity increases
pressure in the cavity falls and air rushes into the lungs (negative pressure breathing)
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Does exhalation require muscular effort
not as much as inhalation, because the air in the lungs are compressed, and pressure increases and air is pushed out through trachea
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What happens when resistance in the airway increases
the body begins to use accessory muscle groups, abdominal and pectoral muscles, to assist the diaphragm in moving the air
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what is ventilation
simple movement of air between the lungs and the environment, requires a chest rise and fall, and patient will require artificial ventilation when they are not breathing
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what is respiration
process of gas exchange, it gives needed oxygen to cells, and removes waste carbon dioxide, and helps control the pH of blood
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in respiration where does oxygen pass
in the walls alveoli, the oxygen passes through the pulmonary capillaries which are located on the walls of the alveoli
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air in the alveoli and blood in the capillaries are separatead by two very _____ ________ __ _________
thin layers of tissue
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diffusion
passive process in which molecules move from an area with a higher concentration of molecules to an area of lower concentration. ex: Oxygen move from alveoli to blood while CO2 moves from blood to alveoli
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what does exhaled air contain
16%. oxygen, 3-5% CO2 and rest is nitrogen
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why does breathing occur
as a result of buildup of carbon dioxide which causing the pH to decrease in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
127
hypoxic drive
can also sitmulate breathing, less sensitive and less powerful than CO2 sensors in bloodstream
128
oxygen sensors
easily satisfied by minimal levels of oxygen in arterial blood
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what is primarily responsible for initiating the ventilation cycle
medulla oblongata, stimulated by high CO2 levels, controls rhythm, starts inspiration, starts base pattern for respirations, send signals down to the phrenic nerve to the diaphragm, triggering contraction
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what do the two areas of the pon help with
augmenting respirations during emotional or physical stress
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the ________ and ______ work together to help get you the right amount of air
medulla, pons
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tidal volume
amount of air that is moved into or out the lungs during a single breath, usually 500mL for an adult
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inspiratory reserve volume
deepest breath you can take after a normal breath
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expiratory reserve volume
maximum amount of air you can forcibly exhale after a normal breath
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residual volume
gas remaining in the lungs after exhaling to keep the lungs open
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dead space
portion of the respiratory system that has no alveoli and little to no exchange of gas between air and blood. mouth, trachea bronchi and bronchioles are considered dead space. when a patient is being ventilated, more dead space is created.
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minute volume
respiratory rate * tidal volume
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labored breathing
needs effort and involves accessory muscles of chest, neck and abdomen. person may breathe much faster or slower
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circulatory system
closed with capillaries arterioles and venules
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two circuits in body
systemic and pulmonary circulation
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systemic circulation
carries oxygen rich blood from the left ventricle through the body and back to the right atrium.
as blood passes, it gives up oxygen and nutrients and absorbs cellular waste and carbon dioxide
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in systemic circulation, how are cellular wastes eliminated
they are eliminated in passages through the liver and kidneys
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pulmonary circulation
carries oxygen poor blood from the right ventricle through the lungs and back to the left atrium
as blood passes thru the lungs it is refreshed with oxygen and gives up carbon dioxide
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myocardium
cardiac muscle, works as two paired pumps, left side is more muscular
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atrium
upper chamber
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ventricle
lower chamber
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high pressure pump
left side pumps blood to the body
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low pressure pump
right side supplies blood to the lungs
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where does the heart muscles blood come from
the aorta
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the aorta has two branches that form the left and right coronary arteries, what do these arteries do
supply the heart muscle with oxygenated blood
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chordae tendineae
thin bands of fibrous tissue that attatch to the valves in the heart and prevent them from inverting
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resting heartbeat in a normal adult
60-100 beats/min
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vigorous activity
as fast as 180 beats/min
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Stroke volume (SV)
amount of blood moved in one beat
in 1 minute, the entire blood volume of 5-6 L is circulated through all the vessels
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Cardiac output (CO)
amount of blood moved in 1 minute
CO = heart rate * stroke volume
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depolarization
electrical charges on the surface of the muscle cell change from positive to negative
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repolarization
heart returns to its resting state and the positive charge is restored to the surface
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what do arteries do
they contract to accomodate for blood loss and increases blood pressure
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what is the middle layer of the artery
tunica media
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what is the aorta
the main artery that leaves the back side of the heart
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what does the aorta do
carries fresh oxygenated blood to the body
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coronary arteries
supplies the heart
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carotid arteries
supplies the head
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hepatic arteries
supply the liver
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renal arteries
supply the kidneys
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mesenteric arteries
supply digestive system
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pulmonary artery
begins at the right side of the heart and carries oxygen depleted blood to lungs
divides into finer and finer branches until it meets with the pulmonary capillary system located in thin walls of alveoli
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arterioles
smallest branches of arteries leading to the vast network of capillaries
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central pulses
carotid and femoral artery
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peripheral pulses
radial, brachial, posterior tibial, dorsalis pedis pulse
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carotid artery pulse
upper portion of neck
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femoral artery pulse
in the groin
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radial artery pulse
at the wrist at the base of the thumb
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brachial artery pulse
medial aspect of the arm, midway between elbow and shoulder
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posterior tibial artery pulse
posterior to the medial malleolus
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dorsalis pedis artery pulse
on top of the foot
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pulse
palpated at neck, wrist, or groin.
created by forceful pumping out of the left ventricle and into the major arteries
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capillary vessels
divisions of the arterial system that allow contact between the blood and cells of the tissues
oxygen and other nutrients pass from blood cells and plasma in the capillaries to the individual tissues cells through the thin wall of the capillary
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why is the blood in arteries characteristically bright red
because its hemoglobin is rich in oxygen
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why is blood in veins dark blue-red
because it has passed through a capillary bed and given up its oxygen to the cells
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where do capillaries connect
directly at one end with flow-regulating arterioles and the other with the venules
they also allow blood to move through them a single cell at a time
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veins vs arteries
veins have thinner walls than arteries but are larger in diameter
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two major vessels
superior vena cava
inferior vena cava
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superior vena cava
"superior" so it carries blood returning from the head, neck, shoulders, and upper extremities
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inferior vena cava
blood that comes from the abdomen, pelvis and lower extremities
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where do the two major vessels reside
to the right of the spine and collect blood before it enters the heart
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venous blood flow
assisted by gravity, skeletal muscle contraction and intrathoraic pressure changes from breathing. one way flow in the veins is governed by valves within the veins
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where to the superior and interior venae cavae join
right atrium
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what does the right ventricle do once it recieves blood from right atrium
pumps it through the pulmonary arteries into the lungs
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systemic vascular resistance (SVR)
resistance to blood flow within all blood vessels except the pulmonary vessels
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constricted blood vessel
decreased size but increased pressure
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normal blood vessel
balance of size and pressure
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dialated blood vessel
increase size but decreased pressure
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red blood cells
contain hemoglobin
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hemoglobin
a protein responsible for carrying oxygen, most CO2 is carried in the form of bicarbonate dissolved in the plasma with a tiny amount of carbon dioxide carried by hemoglobin
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white blood cells (leukolytes)
important in the body's immune defense against infection
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platelets
smaller than sells and are essential in the initial formation of a blood clot, the mechanism that stops bleeding
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plasma
liquid portion of the blood, carries blood cells, hormones and nutrients. 99% of its composition is water and proteins.
199
spleen
solid organ located under the rib cage in left upper quadrant of the abdomen
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what role does the spleen play for the circulatory system
as red blood cells ago they get filtered from the blood stream and get digested in the spleen and liver. then hemoglobin is recycled.
due to its delicate tissues and its position directly under the ribs, the spleen is one of the most frequently injured abdominal organs after blunt trauma
injured spleens can have a lot of internal bleeding
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blood pressure
force of circulated blood against walls of arteries
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systole
when the left ventircle of the heart contracts and pumps blood into the aorta
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diastole
time between contractions when the ventricle is relaxed and refilling with blood
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sphygmomanometer
measures systolic and diastolic pressures and are numerically expressed in mm Hg
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perfusion
circulated of blood in an organ or tissue
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hypoperfusion
shock, circulatory system fails to provide sufficient cirulation for norma cellular function
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what happens when the patient goes into shock
loss of blood is too great, and the adjutment fails
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instersitital space
space between cells
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Mean arterial pressure (MAP)
MAP = (HR * SV) * SVR (systemic vascular reisstance)
MAP = CO * SVR
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intracellular space
space within cells/cell
211
hydrostatic pressure
occurs as fluid pushes against vessel walls to force fluid out of the capillary
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oncotic pressure
opposing force and occurs because proteins in the blood plasma cause water to be puller into the capillary by diffusion
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coagulation
clotting, involves platelets and clotting factors in the blood stream
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plasma function
transports CO2
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chemicals in plasma function
controls buffers pH
216
epinephrine (adrenaline)
increases pulse rate and blood pressure
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norpineephrine
used in treatment of a chock, produces vasocontrsdiction through its properties
218
alpha-adrenergic receptors
causes constriction of blood vessels
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beta-adrenergic receptors
increase in force of contraction of the heart, increased heart rate, and bronchial dialation
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adrengenic
related to adrenal gland, where epinephrine and noepinephrine are made
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baroreceptors
signals are sent through the nervous system, from special pressure sensors (baroreceptors) and allows the brain to recieve information about blood pressure
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central nervous system
brain and spinal cord
223
somatic nervous system
regular activities where there is voluntary control, walking talking writing
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autonomic nevous system
controls non voluntary control, like digestion, dialation, constriction, and sweating
225
cerebrum
largest portion of the brain, made up of neurons, responsible for interpreting what we see, hear, feel, encoding and decoding speech, and controlling precise muscle movements. it can be divided into right and left halves
226
cerebellum
located beneath cerebrum. controls balance, muscle coordination and posture, without it, heard to do muscular acitvities
227
pons
respitory patterns
228
medulla
heart rate, blood pressure, and respiratory rate
229
spinal cord
relays information to and from body
230
cranial nerves
brainstem to head and nack, special peripheral nerves that connect directly to body parts
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peripheral nerves
brain to spinal cord to body part; recieve stimulus from body and sends commands
232
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
absorbs shocks, and when forces are applied, it allows the brain to shift inside the skill without damage
233
spinal cord
extensions of brainstem, travels downward encased with the vertebral column
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sympathetic nervous system
responsible for right or flight reaction
235
parasympathetic nervous sustem
returns to resting state
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epidermis
most superficial layer of the skin, will vary over thickness of the body.
thicker near feet back and scalp
237
germinal layer
base of epidermis, sealed to form a water tight protective covering for the body, produces new cells that ride to the surface and has blood supply
238
stratum corneal layer
dead layer of skin, does not have blood supply
239
dermis
has sweat glands, sebaceous glands, hair follicles, and its blood vessels provide nutrients and oxygen to the skin and has specialized nerve endings that are sensitive to environmental stimuli
240
sweat glands
produce sweat, and reaches skin by small ducts and pores, and helps cool the body
241
sebaceous glands
secrete and oily substance, and seals surface, waterproofing skin and preventing it from drying and cracking
242
hair follicles
small organs that produce hair, has hair grows it passes a shaft that allows it to reach to the epidermal surface
243
subcutcaneous tissue layer
largely composed of fat, serves as an insulator for the body and as a reservoir to store energy, as aging goes by the less support you have whcih causes wrinkles to the skin
244
what does the diaphgram separate
thorax from abdominal cavity
245
RUQ structures
liver, galbladder, portion of the colon
246
RLQ structures
cecum (first portion of the small inestine), appendix
247
LUQ structures
stomach, spleen, partion of colon
248
LLQ
descending and sigmoid portions of the colon
249
pancreas
lies behind abdominal cavity on posterior abdominal call in both upper quadrants
250
urinary bladder
lies behind pubic symphisis in middle of abdomen
251
retroperitoneal organs
kidneys and pancreas because they lie behind abdominal cavity
252
lymph
straw colored fluid that carries oxygen nutrients and hormones to cells
253
lymph nodes
tiny oval modes that filter lymph
254
endocrine system
complex message and control system
255
urinary system
controls discharge waste materials filtered from the blood by the kidneys
256
ureter
passes from renal pelvis of each kidney alone the surface of the posterior abdominal wall behind peritoneum to train into urinary bladder
257
peristalsis
wavelike contraction of smooth muscle occurs in tubes to move the urine into bladder
258
ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
stores energy
259
anaerobic metabolism
when availbale oxygen is limited to portions of hte body, cells switch to this
260
lactic acid
causes muscle burning during anaerobic exercise
261
normal human pH
7.35-7.45
262
hypoxia
decreased level of oxygen in body
263
hypercarbia
elevated level of CO2 in body
264
V/Q ratio
ventilation/perfusion mismatch, describes how ,ich has is being moved effectively through lungs and how much blood is slowing around alveoli where gas exchange occurs
265
effects of respiratory comprimise
oxygen levels fall and co2 levels rise. if co2 fails ot be normal blood will be more acidic, if pH of blood is too low cells will die
decrease oxygen levels force cells to move from aerobic metabolism to anaerobic metabolism
266
cellular metabolism
inability to properly use oxygen and glucose at the cellular level
267
aerobic metabolism
uses oxygen to convert nutrients into energy ATP so that body can use it for functions like exercise
268
anaerobic metabolism
cellular process htat produces enrgy ATP wihtout hte need for oxygen
