Chapter 7: Carbohydrates Flashcards
(147 cards)
1
Q
are the most abundant class of bioorganic molecules on planet Earth.
A
Carbohydrates
2
Q
Carbohydrates’ A abundance in the human body is relatively ___
A
Low
3
Q
2 biochemical substances
A
Bioinorganic substances
Bioorganic substances
4
Q
Substances that do not contain carbon
A
Bioinorganic substances
5
Q
Substances that contain carbon
A
Bioorganic susbtances
6
Q
carbohydrates
constitute about ___ by mass of ___ ___ materials.
A
-75%
- dry plant
7
Q
Composition of bioinorganic substances
A
Water (70%)
Inorganic salts (5%)
8
Q
Composition of Bioorganic susbtances
A
Proteins (about 15%)
Lipids (about 8%)
Carbohydrates (about 2%)
Nucleic acids (about 2%)
9
Q
How do green (chlorophyll-containing) plants produce carbohydrates?
A
Via photosynthesis
10
Q
Two main uses for the carbohydrates in
plants:
A
- In the form of cellulose
- In the form of starch
11
Q
carbohydrates serve as structural elements
A
Cellulose
12
Q
they provide energy reserves for the plants
A
Starch
13
Q
Dietary ___ of plant materials is the major ____ source for ___
and ____.
A
- intake
- carbohydrate
- humans
-animals
14
Q
The average human diet should ideally be about _____ carbohydrate
by mass.
A
- two-thirds
15
Q
Functions of carbohydrates in humans:
A
- Carbohydrate oxidation provides energy
- (Glycogen) provides a short-term energy reserve
- Carbohydrates supply carbon atoms for the synthesis of other biochemical substances
- Essential components in the mechanisms of genetic control of growth and development of living cells (ribose,deoxyribose)
- Carbohydrates linked to lipids are structural components of cell membranes.
- Carbohydrates linked to proteins function in a variety of cell–cell and cell–
molecule recognition processes.
16
Q
Carbohydrate storage, in the form of ____, provides a short-term energy reserve.
A
glycogen
17
Q
structural components of cell membranes.
A
(carbohydrates linked to) lipids
18
Q
function in a variety of cell–cell and cell–molecule recognition processes.
A
(Carbohydrates linked to) Proteins
19
Q
General formula of most simple carbohydrates
A
CnH2nOn
20
Q
the basis for the term carbohydrate (“hydrate of carbon”)
A
Cn(H2O)n
21
Q
A carbohydrate is a ____ ____, a ____ ____, or a compound
that ___ polyhydroxy aldehydes or polyhydroxy ketones upon ____.
A
-polyhydroxy aldehyde
-polyhydroxy ketone
-yields
-hydrolysis
22
Q
Carbohydrates are classified on the ___ _ _____ __.
A
basis of molecular size
23
Q
Types of carbohydrates
A
- Monosaccharide
- Disaccharide
- Oligosaccharide
- Polysaccharide
24
Q
a carbohydrate that contains a single polyhydroxy aldehyde or
polyhydroxy ketone unit.
A
Monosaccharide
25
Monosaccharide;
- cannot be broken down into ____ ___ by _____ reactions.
- _________, white, _____ ____
-simpler units
-hydrolysis
- water-soluble, white, crystalline solids
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is a carbohydrate that contains two monosaccharide units covalently bonded to each other
Disaccharide
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properties of dissaccharides
Like monosaccharides, disaccharides are crystalline, water-soluble substances.
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examples of disaccharides
Sucrose (table sugar)
Lactose (milk sugar)
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Hydrolysis of a disaccharide produces
two monosaccharides units
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a carbohydrate that contains 3-10 monosaccharide units covalently bonded to each other.
Oligosaccharide
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are seldom encountered in biochemical systems.
"free" oligosaccharides
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"free" oligosaccharide are usually found associated with ____ and ____ in complex molecules that have both ____ and _____ functions.
- proteins
- lipids
- structural and regulatory
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Complete hydrolysis of an oligosaccharide produces
several monosaccharide
molecules
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-a trisaccharide produces
-a hexassacharide produces
-3 monosaccharide
-6 monosaccharides
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a polymeric carbohydrate that contains many monosaccharide units covalently bonded to each other
polysaccharide
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The number of monosaccharide units present in a polysaccharide varies from a ____ ____ ___ to over ____ units.
few hundred units to over 50,000
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By definition, each member of a pair of stereoisomers must have
- the same molecular formula and
- same bonding pattern
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D- and L- differ in the ____ ____ of atoms in the molecule
- spatial arrangements
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two possible isomeric forms
stereoisomers
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The prefixes ___ and ___found in the complete name of a monosaccharide
D- and L-
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carbon atom that has four different groups bonded to it
Chiral carbon
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are images that coincide at all points when the images are laid upon each other.
Superimposible mirror images
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are images where not all points coincide when the images are laid upon each other.
Nonsuperimposable mirror images
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The Importance of Chirality
* Sometimes both forms are biologically active, each form giving a different response;
* Sometimes both elicit the same response, but one form’s response is many times greater than that of the other; and
* Sometimes only one of the two forms is biochemically active.
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a compound that has n chiral centers may exist in a maximum of __ ______ ____.
- 2^n stereoisomeric forms
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types of constitutional isomers
-Skeletal isomers
- Positional isomers
- functional isomers
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Types of stereoisomers
enantiomers and diastereomers
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stereoisomers that are not mirror images of each other
Diastereomers
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types of diastereomers
Cis-trans isomers
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is a compound that rotates the plane of polarized light.
optically active compound
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is a chiral compound that rotates the plane of polarized light in a clockwise direction.
dextrorotatory compound
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is a chiral compound that rotates the plane of polarized light in a counterclockwise direction.
levorotatory compound
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Classification of monosaccharides
Based on the type of carbonyl group
1. Aldose
2. Ketose
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Biochemically important monosaccharides
- D-Glucose
- D-Galactose
- D-Fructose
- D-Ribose
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* Found in high amounts
in ripe fruits
* Blood sugar
D-Glucose
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D-Glucose is also called
Dextrose
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- seldom encountered as a
free monosaccharide
- Synthesized from glucose in the body for the production of lactose
D-Galactose
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a disaccharide of
glucose and galactose
Lactose
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D-Galactose is also called
Brain sugar
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Why is it called Brain sugar?
it is a component of
glycoproteins found in brain
and nerve tissue
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also known as levulose and fruit sugar
* biochemically the most important ketohexose
D-Fructose
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= 5-carbon sugar (pentose)
= Component of ribonucleic acids (RNAs) and energy-rich compounds such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
D-Ribose
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cyclic structures are the dominant forms at ______.
equilibrium
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result from the ability of their carbonyl group (C=O) to react intramolecularly with a hydroxyl group (-OH).
cyclic hemiacetals
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Although monosaccharides exist mostly in cyclic forms, a small amount of the open-chain form is always present, which provides __ ____ ___
an aldehyde group
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aldoses act as reducing agents in such reactions, they are called
reducing sugars
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Tollens and Benedict’s solutions, oxidize the aldehyde end of an aldose to give
Aldonic acid
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Under the basic conditions associated with Tollens and Benedict’s solutions, ketoses are also
reducing sugars
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Under the basic conditions the ketose undergoes a
a structural rearrangement
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The ketose undergoes a structural rearrangement that produces?
an aldose, and the aldose then reacts
71
Strong oxidizing agents can oxidize both ends of a monosaccharide at the same time to produce a
Dicarboxylic acid
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polyhydroxy dicarboxylic acids are known as
aldaric acids
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In biochemical systems enzymes can ____ the ____ alcohol end of an aldose such as glucose, without ____ of the _____ ___
- oxidize
- primary
- oxidation
- aldehyde group
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In biochemical systems enzymes can oxidize the primary alcohol end of an aldose such as glucose, without oxidation of the aldehyde group, to produce an
Alduronic acid
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The carbonyl group present in a monosaccharide (either an aldose or a ketose) can be reduced to a hydroxyl group, using
hydrogen as the reducing agent
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polyhydroxy alcohols are called
sugar alcohols or alditols
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is an acetal formed from a cyclic monosaccharide by replacement of the hemiacetal carbon -OH group with an -OR group
Glycoside
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a glycoside produced from glucose is called
glucoside
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a glycoside produced from galactose is called
galactoside
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____ ___ and their _____ ____ are important building blocks of polysaccharides found in ____ and _____ ___.
- Amino sugars
- N-acetyl derivatives
- chitin
- hyaluronic acid
81
Disaccharide consists two monosaccharide joined through
Oxygen bridge
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83
is the bond between two monosaccharides
Glycosidic linkage
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Biochemically Important Disaccharides
- Maltose
- Cellobiose
- Lactose
- Sucrose
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often called malt sugar
- produced whenever the polysaccharide starch breaks down
Maltose
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Linkage of maltose
α(1→4) linkage
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germinated barley that has been baked and ground;
contains this disaccharide
Malt
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maltose is made up of two _____ ___, one of which must be ___ _____
- D-glucose units
- α-D-glucose
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the enzyme that breaks the glucose–glucose α(1→4
Maltase
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an intermediate in the hydrolysis of the polysaccharide cellulose
Cellubiose
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Linkage in cellobiose
β(1→4) linkage
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major sugar found in milk
Lactose
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Lactose is made up of a ______ unit and a _____unit joined by a β(1→4) linkage
- β-D-galactose
- D-glucose
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Glycosidic linkage of lactose
β(1→4) linkage
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Lactose can be hydrolyzed by acid or by the enzyme
Lactase
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is a condition in which people lack the enzyme lactase
Lactose intolerance
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* common table sugar
* is the most abundant of all disaccharides and occurs throughout the plant kingdom
Sucrose
98
Sucrose; _____ and____ in an α,β(1→2) glycosidic linkage
α-D-glucose
β-F-fructose
99
glycosidic linkage of sucorse
α,β(1→2)
100
Two naturally occuring oligosaccharides
- trisaccharide raffinose
- tetrasaccharide stachyose
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is the potato plant’s toxin
Solanine
102
Blood type: universal donor
Type O
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Blood Type: Universal Acceptor
Type AB
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is an alternate name for a polysaccharide.
glycan
105
Important parameters that distinguish various polysaccharides (or glycans) from each other are:
1. The identity of the monosaccharide repeating unit(s) in the polymer chain.
2. The length of the polymer chain.
3. As with disaccharides, the type of glycosidic linkage between monomer units.
4. The degree of branching of the polymer chain.
106
is a polysaccharide in which only one type of monosaccharide monomer is present
homopolysaccharide
107
is a polysaccharide in which more than one (usually two) type of monosaccharide monomer is present.
heteropolysaccharide
108
is a polysaccharide that is a storage form for monosaccharides
- used as an energy source in cells.
Storage polysaccharide
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Glucose----(Glycogenesis)---> _____
glycogen
110
the process of storing excess glucose for use by the body at a later time
Glycogenesis
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______<------(Glycogenolysis)----- Glycogen
Glucose
112
is the breakdown of glycogen
Glycogenolysis
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the structural component of plant cell walls
- the most abundant naturally occurring polysaccharide
Cellulose
114
High concentration of cellulose is found in
"Woody" protions of plants - Stems, stalks, and trunks
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linkage of cellulose
β(1→4)
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Linkage of amylose
α(1→4)
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the second most abundant naturally occurring polysaccharide.
Chitin
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An ____ _____ is a polysaccharide with a disaccharide repeating unit
in which one of the disaccharide components is an ___ ___ and one or both disaccharide components has a negative charge due to a sulfate group or a carboxyl group.
- acidic polysaccharide
- amino sugar
119
acidic polysaccharides are
heteropolysaccharides
120
Two of the most well-known acidic polysaccharides are
Hyaluronic acid
Heparin
121
contains alternating residues of N-acetyl-βD-glucosamine (NAG; the monomer of chitin) and D-glucuronate.
Hyaluronic acid
122
a small highly sulfated polysaccharide with only 15–90 disaccharide residues per chain.
Heparin
123
Heparin is a blood anticoagulant. It is naturally present in ___ ___ and is released at the site of tissue injury
mast cells
124
is applied as an anticoagulant to the interior/exterior surface of external objects that come in contact with blood
Pharmaceutical-grade heparin
125
is a dietary monosaccharide or dietary disaccharide; are usually sweet to the taste and are commonly referred to as sugars.
Simple carbohydrate
126
two types of simple carbohydrate
- Natural sugar
- Refined sugar
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is a sugar naturally present in whole foods.
Natural sugar
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is a sugar that has been separated from its plant source.
Refined sugar
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is a dietary polysaccharide.
Complex carbohydrate
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is a lipid molecule that has one or more carbohydrate (or carbohydrate derivative) units covalently bonded to it.
Glycolipid
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is a protein molecule that has one or more carbohydrate (or carbohydrate derivative) units covalently bonded to it.
glycoprotein
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Glycolipids called ____ and gangliosides occur ____ in brain tissue
-cerebrosides
-extensively
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called immunoglobins are key components of the body’s immune system response to invading foreign material
Glycoprotein
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Properties of Hyaluronic acid
• Highly viscous; serve as lubricants in the fluid of joints
• also associated with the jelly-like consistency of the vitreous humor of the eye.
• The Greek word hyalos means “glass”; hyaluronic acid solutions have a glass-like appearance.
135
Important sources of natural sugar
Milk and fresh fruit
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Major sources of refined sugar
Sugar beets and sugar cane
137
The source for pharmaceutical heparin
intestinal or lung tissue of slaughter-house animals (pigs and cows).
138
5 types of antibodies
IgA
lgD,
IgE,
IgG, and
IgM
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-tags pathogens for destruction
lgA
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Where is lgA secreted?
Secreted into mucous, saliva, tears colustrum
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B-cell receptor. Stimulates release of lgM
lgD
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Binds to mast cell and basophils .
lgE
143
Where does antibody lgE involve?
Allergy and antiparasitic activity
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Binds to phagocytes.
The main blood antibody for secondary responses.
lgG
145
lgG crosses, what?
Placenta
146
Fixes complement.
Main antibody of primary responses.
lgM
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B-cell receptor. Immune system memory
lgM
