Chapter 7: Learning

Question 1

Learning

Answer 1

a relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience

Question 2

Classical Conditioning (and who discovered it)

Answer 2

a type of learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus produces a response after being paired with a stimulus that naturally produces a response (reactive behavior)
- Watson and Pavlov

Question 3

unconditioned stimulus

Answer 3

stimulus that the individual already knows about which produces a response

Question 4

unconditioned response

Answer 4

a reflexive reaction that is reliably produced by an unconditioned stimulus

Question 5

conditioned stimulus

Answer 5

the stimulus that the individual learns about

Question 6

conditioned response

Answer 6

a reaction that resembles an unconditioned response but is produced by a conditioned stimulus

Question 7

negative reinforcement

Answer 7

a stimulus that is taken away, and the removal of that stimulus is reinforcing

Question 8

positive reinforcement

Answer 8

a stimulus is presented that increases the likelihood of a behavior

Question 9

positive punishment

Answer 9

a stimulus is administered that reduces the likelihood of a behavior

Question 10

negative punishment

Answer 10

a stimulus is removed that decreases the likelihood of a behavior

Question 11

backward conditioning

Answer 11

US precedes the CS
- least effective

Question 12

simultaneous conditioning

Answer 12

CS and US presented at the same time
- third best

Question 13

Delayed conditioning

Answer 13

CS presented at least until the US is presented
- best type of conditioning

Question 14

Trace conditioning

Answer 14

CS is discontinued before the US is presented
- second best

Question 15

discrimination

Answer 15

the capacity to distinguish between similar but distinct stimuli

Question 16

extinction

Answer 16

• the gradual elimination of a learned response that occurs when the CS is repeatedly presented without the US
• when the reinforcements/punishments stop

Question 17

spontaneous recovery

Answer 17

the tendency of a learned behavior to recover from extinction after a rest period

Question 18

generalization

Answer 18

the CR is observed even though the CS is slightly different from the CS used during acquisition

Question 19

Conditioned taste aversion (and who discovered it)

Answer 19

• Garcia
• if new food makes you sick, you won’t eat it again

Question 20

operant conditioning

Answer 20

a type of learning in which the consequences of an organism’s behavior determine whether it will repeat that behavior in the future

Question 21

Thorndike’s law of Effect

Answer 21

the principle thatbehaviors that are followed by a “satisfying state of affairs” tend to be repeated, whereas those that produce an “unpleasant state of affairs” are less likely to be repeated

Question 22

instrumental behaviors (and who proposed it)

Answer 22

behavior that required an organism todo something
- Thorndike

Question 23

operant behavior (and who proposed it)

Answer 23

refer tobehavior that an organism performs that has some impact on the environment
- Skinner

Question 24

reinforcement

Answer 24

increases the likelihood of a response occurring

Question 25

punishment

Answer 25

decreases the likelihood of a response occurring

Question 26

primary reinforcers

Answer 26

help satisfy biological needs or desires

Question 27

secondary reinforcers

Answer 27

derive their effectiveness from their associations with primary reinforcers through classical conditioning

Question 28

fixed-interval (FI) schedule

Answer 28

reinforcers are presented at fixed time periods, provided that the appropriate response is made

Question 29

variable-interval (VI) schedule

Answer 29

a behavior is reinforced on the basis of an average time that has expired since the last reinforcement

Question 30

fixed-ratio (FR) schedule

Answer 30

reinforcement is delivered after a specific number of responses have been made

Question 31

variable-ratio (VR) schedule

Answer 31

the delivery of reinforcement is based on a particular average number of responses

Question 32

intermittent reinforcement

Answer 32

only some of the responses made are followed by reinforcement

Question 33

intermittent reinforcement effect

Answer 33

intermittent reinforcement schedules resist extinction better than those maintained under continuous reinforcement

Question 34

shaping

Answer 34

learning that results from the reinforcement of successive steps to a final desired behavior

Question 35

Latent learning

Answer 35

a process in which something is learned, but it is not manifested as a behavioral change until sometime in the future

Question 36

cognitive map

Answer 36

a mental representation of the physical features of the environment

Question 37

observational learning

Answer 37

a process in which an organism learns by watching the actions of others

Question 38

Mirror neurons

Answer 38

a type of cell found in the frontal and parietal lobes of primates, including humans

Question 39

implicit learning

Answer 39

learning that takes place largely independent of awareness of both the process and the products of information acquisition

Question 40

distributed practice

Answer 40

spreading out study activities so that more time intervenes between repetitions of the information to be learned

Question 41

interleaved practice

Answer 41

mixes different kinds of problems or materials within a single study session - good for math

Question 42

practice testing

Answer 42

actively retrieving an item from memory during a test improves subsequent retention of that item more efficiently than simply studying it again

Question 43

partiral reinforcement extinction effect

Answer 43

takes longer for a partially reinforced behavior to extinguish

Question 44

habituation

Answer 44

a general process in which repeated or prolonged exposure to a stimulus results in a gradual reduction in responding

Question 45

sensitization

Answer 45

a simple form of learning that occurs when presentation of a stimulus leads to an increased response to a later stimulus

Question 46

acquisition

Answer 46

the phase of classical conditioning when the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus are presented together

Question 47

biological preparedness

Answer 47

a propensity for learning particular kinds of association over others

Question 48

second/higher order conditioning

Answer 48

a type of learning whereby a CS is paired with a stimulus that because associated with the US in an earlier procedure

Question 49

John Garcia

Answer 49

studied the conditioned taste aversion and biological preparedness

Question 50

positive

Answer 50

when a stimulus is presented

Question 51

negative

Answer 51

when a stimulus is removed

Question 52

is reinforcement or punishment more effective?

Answer 52

reinforcement

Question 53

schedules of reinforcement

Answer 53

how often the reinforcer is presented

Question 54

interval schedules

Answer 54

based on the time intervals between reinforcements

Question 55

ratio schedules

Answer 55

based on ratio of responses to reinforcements

Question 56

Edward Chace Tolman

Answer 56

proposed latent learning and cognitive maps

Question 57

classical condition in humans

Answer 57

phobias and counterconditioning

Question 58

Bandura

Answer 58

investigated observational learning in humans

Question 59

artificial grammar

Answer 59

a complex set of rules

Question 60

judgments of learning

Answer 60

people's estimates on how well they learned something

Question 61

B. F. Skinner believed that teaching machines could promote effective learning because they allow for both

Answer 61

shaping and immediate reinforcement

Question 62

What part of the brain is most associated with the positive aspects of reinforcement

Answer 62

limbic system

Question 63

Operant conditioning involves which brain region(s

Answer 63

Nucleus Accumbens

Question 64

If you are learning something implicitly, what area of the brain is not as active as that of someone learning explicitly

Answer 64

the hippocampus

Question 65

we have a greater responsiveness to ________ reinforcement than to ________ reinforcement

Answer 65

immediate; delayed

Question 66

Mark Lepper

Answer 66

confirmation bias