Chapter 7: Memory Flashcards
1
Q
what model do we use associated with memory?
A
Atkinson-Shiffrin model
2
Q
______: retain information in memory without using
it for any specific purpose
A
Stores
3
Q
______: shift information from one memory to another
A
Control Processes
4
Q
______:
a memory store that
accurately holds
perceptual
information for a
very brief amount of
time
A
Sensory memory
5
Q
whats the difference between the iconic and echoic memory?
A
iconic: stores visual memories is STM
echoic: stores auditory memories in STM
6
Q
The _____ is an experimental procedure designed to investigate iconic memory—the sensory memory system that temporarily holds visual information.
A
Sperling Task
7
Q
what did the Sperling Task accomplish?
A
The Sperling Task demonstrated that iconic memory is capable of holding a large amount of visual information, but it decays rapidly, within about 1 second. This research helped establish the idea that sensory memory is very brief, and it showed that while the sensory memory system can temporarily store a lot of information, the capacity for conscious recall (e.g., in short-term memory) is much more limited.
8
Q
______ interacts with
sensory memory to allow
for continuous
perceptions
A
Attention
9
Q
‘Spotlight of attention’
allows some sensory
information to be
transferred to ____
A
STM
10
Q
change blindness occurs
when information is
outside of….
A
our spotlight of attention
gorilla example!!
11
Q
_____:
is a memory store with
limited capacity and
duration (<1 min)
A
Short-Term Memory (STM)
12
Q
how many items/chunks can our short-term memory hold?
A
7 +/- 2 items/chunks
13
Q
______: Organizing
smaller units of
information into larger,
more meaningful units
A
Chunking
allows us to remember many more details… we can teach our STM!
14
Q
what was the Brown-Peterson Task?
A
subjects were presented with 2-consonant trigrams (ex: BKG)
then given a math task
accuracy at remembering 3-letters drops after math task
we must practice to keep information fresh in our memory!
15
Q
T/F: Rehearsal allows some
information to enter long-term storage for later retrieval
A
true!
16
Q
_______: is a
memory store that holds
information for extended
periods of time
A
Long-Term Memory (LTM)
17
Q
T/F: Deficits in memory can happen at any stage
A
true!
info we dont need gets forgotten, makes us more efficient beings!
18
Q
_____: getting info into LTM
A
encoding
19
Q
_____: keeping info in LTM
A
storage
20
Q
_____: getting info out of LTM
A
retrieval
21
Q
T/F: Memories are organized
according to similarity
A
true!
Memory is represented
by a series of related nodes, thinking about one node activates the other nodes
22
Q
what results in the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon?
A
remember similar things, but not the one you need… activating similar nodes but can’t remember the info u need
ex: remembering celebrity names that are similar
23
Q
_______: tendency to recall earlier and
later items from a list
A
Serial position effect
24
Q
Variations to methodology
can selectively _____
primacy or recency effect on our memory
A
disrupt
ex: delayed recall (least amount remembered), rapid presentation (most remembered)
25
which areas of the brain are involved in LTM? STM?
Hippocampus (LTM) vs
sensory and association
areas (STM)
26
T/F: Brain damage can
selectively impair one
memory system
true
27
_______: more nuanced elaboration on the short-term memory component of the Atkinson-Shiffrin model
the working memory model
28
whats the difference between the working memory model and the Atkinson-Shiffrin model?
AS model says info just takes up space passively in STM
working memory says we actually work with the hoard of info in our STM
29
_____: Storage component that relies on
rehearsal and stores information
as sounds
phonological loop
30
what is the Word-length effect on the Phonological loop?
People remember more one
syllable words than four or
five-syllable words
Length of the loop (~2 sec)
31
______: Storage component that
maintains visual images and
spatial layouts
visuospatial sketchpad
Feature binding: Visual
chunking
32
______: Storage component that combines the
images and sounds from the other two
components into coherent episodes
episodic buffer
proposed to link other systems to LTM!
33
_______: The control center of working memory
that coordinates attention and the
exchange of information among the
three storage components
the Central Executive
34
what are the 3 storage components of our working memory?
episodic buffer
visuospatial sketchpad
phonological loop
35
what are the 2 branches of LTM?
declarative and nondeclarative
36
_______ memories: conscious memories
Declarative (explicit) memories
37
_______ memories: not dependent on
conscious awareness
Nondeclarative (implicit)
38
what are the two forms of declarative memories?
semantic memories
episodic memories
39
_______:
memories that include our
general knowledge and
facts about the world
Semantic memories
40
________:
memories for personal
experiences recalled from
a first-person perspective
Episodic memories
autobiographical, our own lives!
41
classical conditioning exploits which form of memory?
nondeclarative memory
42
________:
include pattern of
muscle movements
(muscle memory)
■ Skill learning
Procedural memories
43
what type of memory is associated with procedural memories
nondeclarative memory
44
______: previous
exposure to a stimulus
can influence our later
behaviour
Priming
part of our nondeclarative memory
45
_______ knowledge can
be implicitly primed
ex: Word-stem completion
- filling in GREE_ , with images of money or grass
Semantic
46
Long-term potentiation (LTP)
in the ______
facilitates memory
formation
hippocampus
47
_______: the process
of converting short-term
memories into long-term
memories in the brain
Consolidation
48
______: Long-
term memories stored in
structures that participated
in original experience
Cross-cortical storage
synapse is physically bound tighter, secures the memory!
49
______: inability to remember what was already known at the onset of amnesia
retrograde amnesia
past events lost!
50
_____: inability or limited ability to form new memories after the onset of amnesia
anterograde amnesia
no new memories!
51
who had bilateral media temporal lobectomy to treat severe seizures? what happened to him?
Henry Molaison (H.M.)
(1926-2008)
no more seizures, but never formed a new memory again!
he had deficits in digit span +1 test, block-tapping test, episodic recall
- couldn't move anything into LTM
52
not all of HM's memories were affected, what did he have no deficits in?
classical conditioning
remote memory
mirror drawing test
incomplete pictures test
could do them all, just never remembered ever doing them!
53
what was oversimplified in HM's study?
More than hippocampus removed, which doesn't work in isolation...
has many links to surrounding structures, can't isolate observations to one thing
54
________: prolonging exposure to information by repeating it
ineffective encoding
Maintenance rehearsal
length of time we repeat something has no impact on memory
55
Shallow Processing vs. Deep Processing?
Shallow Processing: maintenance rehersal
Deep Processing: Elaborative rehearsal
56
_______: a strategy of focusing on meaning
and connecting to-be remembered information with other
information already stored in memory
Elaborative rehearsal
57
Incidental vs Intentional Learning?
Incidental learning occurs when information is learned without the intention or conscious effort to learn it. The learning happens incidentally as a byproduct of engaging in some other activity.
Intentional learning involves conscious effort and intention to learn something. The learner actively engages in the process of learning with a clear goal or purpose in mind.
Intentional learning can sometimes lead to incidental learning, vice versa.
useful in different ways!
58
T/F: Information related to oneself
and one’s well-being more easily
remembered
true
59
T/F: Emotions enhance attention and
facilitate deep processing
true
60
_____: Same decline in memory as
‘normal’ memories
Differences in beliefs of
accuracy
Stress hormones enhance
short-term recall, impair
long-term memory
flashbulb memories
ex: 9/11- scary
golden goal- happy
61
what is the Self-Reference and Survival
Processing Effect?
we remember things easier and with more detail when they relate to ourselves, and our survival
evolutionary!
62
______: identifying a stimulus or
piece of information when it is presented
Recognition
typically easier, multiple choice
63
_____: retrieving information when asked,
but without the information being present
Recall
free vs. cued recall (prompt vs. no prompt)
64
T/F: Retrieval is most effective
when it occurs in the same
context as encoding
true!
65
what is Context-dependent learning?
learning and recalling in the same environment
66
what is State-dependent learning?
drank caffeine while studying, caffeine can help remember during exam
67
what is Mood-dependent learning?
if you were happy while learning, want to go into test in a good mood
68
Context-dependent forgetting?
like wandering into a different room for something and forgetting why you were there, until returning to original space
(Context-reinstatement effect!)
69
Hermann Ebbinghaus:
demonstrated the
_______ by
measuring his own recall
for words
forgetting curve
70
_______: techniques that are
intended to improve memory for specific
information
Mnemonics
71
____: occurs when information
is stored in more than one form
Dual coding
like the alphabet song! visual and auditory, two pathways to utilize when trying to remember
72
how can we improve memory? two ways
Cue overload: using visual imagery
Method of loci: connects items to be remembered to
locations along a familiar path
73
Mnemonics, deep
processing, and elaborative
rehearsal all contribute to
the ______ of
memories
organization
74
what are two ways we can improve studying?
Testing effect: Taking a practice
test can improve performance
Spacing effect: Material is better
recalled when studied over a
period of short sessions spaced
apart, instead of in one long
session
Interleaving: Forces changes
in attention, makes the
session more effortful, and
strengthens memory
75
____: Taking a practice
test can improve performance
Testing effect
76
____: Material is better
recalled when studied over a
period of short sessions spaced
apart, instead of in one long
session
Spacing effect
77
_____: Forces changes
in attention, makes the
session more effortful, and
strengthens memory
Interleaving
78
Note taking facilitates learning through
_____ difficulties
desirable
Forces student to synthesize
main points (i.e., gist)
Promotes active learning by engaging
attention and working memory
79
T/F: Students who take notes have higher test
performance, even without review
true! generation effect.. things we create ourselves are more memorable
80
T/F: Expertise enhances
memory
true
internal library is more organized so it can fit/retain more info. (importance of understanding!)
81
_______ allows
for new knowledge to
be integrated into
existing memory
frameworks
Understanding
82
_____: organized categories
of information that get activated
by an event, object, or idea
Schemas
Mental ‘shortcuts’ that
guide expectations and
memory
83
when constructing memories, what leads to the contribution to stereotypes?
Supplements incomplete
memories and helps us
avoid confirming the
obvious... we make rapid decisions that can confirm stereotypes (ex: men being doctors)
84
______: we first recall
a generalized schema and then add
in specific details as needed
Constructive Memory
85
what are the two forms of constructive memory schemas?
Schema-consistent (big guy on motorcycle) vs
schema-inconsistent (grandma on motorcycle)
86
T/F: schema-inconsistent memories are MUCH more memorable because it seems weird! doesn't match our assumptions
true!
87
T/F: Errors in memory tend to make
recall schema-consistent
true
ex: remembering the plumber as male, women doing laundry
88
______: happens when information occurring
after an event becomes part of the memory for that event
Misinformation effect
leading questions can have a major impact on our memory
89
T/F: Children are particularly
susceptible to the
misinformation effect
very true! makes children difficult witnesses in court
90
how does misinformation impact jury instructions?
the jury can't access outside influences, can cause misinformation unknowingly!
91
_______:
errors in which
other knowledge
intrudes into a
remembered event
Intrusion errors
92
_______: increased confidence in a false
memory due to repeated
imagination of the event
Imagination inflation
uses guided imagery to alter memories!
93
_______: the
inability to distinguish between
memories for events that have
actually occurred and memories
for imagined events
Reality monitoring errors
ex: forgetting to actually respond to a text!
94
T/F: Integrating a new memory
into our existing ‘library’ of
connected ideas can both
help and hinder memory
retrieval
true!
95
________: the
inability to properly attribute
how (i.e., from what source) a
memory originated
Source monitoring errors
96
source monitoring errors cause....
destination memory errors!
ex: someone telling you the same story over and over, they forgot you've been the "destination" before!
97
T/F: vague familiarity gives false sense of credibility...
true! if exposed to something before, more inclined to give credibility
98
______ effect: Just being exposed
to a stimuli
repeatedly can
increase later
preferences
mere exposure effect
explains our preference for name brand stuff! even though its exactly the same (ex: advil vs ibuprofen)
99
T/F: People misidentify and
misreport events despite
high confidence in their
recall ability
true, makes eyewitness testimony unreliable
100
T/F: >75% of wrongful
convictions attributed
to mistaken
eyewitnesses
true! juries are much more likely to believe a confident witness
101
when using police lineups, does confidence increase over time?
yes! initial ID is often tentative, then over time the memory of the accuser CONVINCES them that the person they picked out was the perpatraitor
102
what happened with the case of Ronald Cotton?
he was selected from a police lineup incorrectly
the confidence in his wrongful ID increased over time, leading to his incarceration
he was exonerated after serving significant time, now he and his accuser travel and talk about their combined story
103
how do we improve eyewitness testimony?
by giving appropriate instructions, tell people if suspect isn't in the lineup to avoid false hits
use double-blind procedures, where the administrator doesn't know who the suspect is... avoid bias
104
T/F: Lineup should be
composed of people
that fit description
provided by witness,
not people that look
similar to suspect
true! we want to control the distinctive features, force the identifier to have a holistic processing of the face instead of just picking out distinctive feature (ex: suspect with black eye)
105
whats the difference between a Simultaneous vs sequential lineup? what makes them better/worse?
simultaneous: all faces at the same time, leads to more innocents in jail (but more hits)
sequential: leads to less hits, but less wrongfully convicted people
106
can eyewitness
confidence be used as a
predictor of
accuracy?
kind of, yes! if someone is confident right when they identify, leads to high accuracy results
people are obviously way more confident later on after the initial ID because they've convinced themselves they're right... that initial confidence rating is super indicative of if they actually ARE right or not
