Chapter 7 Shit

Question 1

What is growth in the s+c world?

Answer 1

Increase in body size or particular body part

Question 2

What is development for an athlete?

Answer 2

Natural progression from prenatal life to adulthood

Question 3

What is maturation?

Answer 3

Process of becoming mature and fully-functional

Question 4

What is chronological age?

Answer 4

-Age in months or years
-Not very accurate to define stages of development because children don’t grow at a constant rate
-Substantial differences in development occur between children of the same age
+Weight and height
+Physical skills and builds
+Differences in timing tempo and magnitude of growth during puberty - the period of time in which secondary sex characteristics develop and a child transitions to young adulthood

Question 5

What is biological age?

Answer 5

-Measured in terms of skeletal age, physique maturity, or sexual maturation
-In women - menarche - the onset of menstruation - is the marker for sexual maturation
-In boys, sexual maturity indicated by:
+Appearance of pubic and facial hair
+Deepening of the voice

Question 6

How is the assessment of maturation used in training children?

Answer 6

-Helps fairly match children for fitness testing and athletic competition
-No evidence that physical training delays or accelerates growth in adequately nourished children
-Osteogenic stimuli essential for skeletal remodeling and growth

Question 7

What’s the best way to determine biological age?

Answer 7

Skeletal X-rays compared against standard reference radiographs

Question 8

What is somatic age?

Answer 8

-Longitudinal growth curve analysis
-Prediction of age from peak height velocity - age of maximal growth during a puberty growth spurt
-Best assessed every three months for longitudinal assessments

Question 9

What is training age?

Answer 9

Length of time a child has consistently followed a formalized and supervised resistance training program

Question 10

How does training age affect growth in a given child?

Answer 10

-Magnitude of gain will be affected by the amount of adaptation that has already occurred
-Peak height velocity typically occurs between age 12 and 14 and may increase risk of injury 0 care must be taken to avoid overuse injuries and ensure proper lifting technique:
+Reinforce proper movement patterns
+Target flexibility restrictions and correct muscle imbalances
+Decrease volume and/or intensity

Question 11

How is does muscle grow in youth populations?

Answer 11

-Muscle mass increases steadily throughout developing years
-At birth ~25% of body weight is muscle
-By adulthood ~40% body weight is muscle
-In male puberty - hormonal increases (testosterone, GH, IGF) results in large increase in muscle mass and shoulder-width
-In female puberty - increased estrogen leads to increased body fat, breast development, and hip width
-Muscle mass increase in boys greater than in girls
-Muscle mass increases are caused by hypertrophy of individual fibers

Question 12

Where does the majority of bone formation occur?

Answer 12

-Diaphysis - central shaft of a long bone
-Growth cartilage - located in:
+Epiphyseal growth plate
+Joint surface
+Apophyseal insertions of muscle-tendon units
-Most bones are fused by early 20s

Question 13

What is cartilage vulnerable to?

Answer 13

-injury from trauma and overuse
-Injuries may disrupt blood and nutrient supply
+Results in permanent growth disturbances
-Trauma can occur from falls or repetitive stress
Peak incidence of epiphyseal growth damage occurs at peak height velocity
-Pre-adolescents may be less susceptible to this type of injury before they hit peak height velocity
Injury risk can be lowered by
+The appropriate technique, progression, training loads, and qualified instruction by strength and conditioning professionals

Question 14

What is cartilage vulnerable to?

Answer 14

-injury from trauma and overuse
-Injuries may disrupt blood and nutrient supply
+Results in permanent growth disturbances
-Trauma can occur from falls or repetitive stress
Peak incidence of epiphyseal growth damage occurs at peak height velocity
-Pre-adolescents may be less susceptible to this type of injury before they hit peak height velocity
Injury risk can be lowered by
+The appropriate technique, progression, training loads, and qualified instruction by strength and conditioning professionals

Question 15

What developmental changes occur in muscular strength?

Answer 15

-Increases in strength correspond to increased muscle mass throughout adolescence
-In boys - peak strength gains typically appear 1.2 years after peak height velocity and .8 years after peak weight velocity
-Suggest muscle mass increase precedes the ability to express strength with the new muscle
-Similar for girls but more variation in the strength-weight relationship
-Hormonal responses account for the acceleration of strength in boys during puberty and plateau in strength in girls
-Myelination of motor neurons required for skilled performance
+Full myelination does not occur until sexual maturation
+Results in different responses and skill gains between children and adults

Question 16

Why is biological age better than chronological age?

Answer 16

-Early maturing children tend to be mesomorphic - muscular and have broader shoulders, or endomorphic - rounded and broader hips
-Late maturers tend to be ectomorophic - slender and tall
-Different proportions affect the execution of resistance exercise
+Short arms and large chest cavity have an advantage in upper body pressing
+Long legs and long torso disadvantage for squatting
+Requires individualized resistance training programs for each child
++Coaches should use child-sized weights
++Coaches should explain to children the difference in programs
++Special encouragement for late maturers

Question 17

What are NSCA youth training guidelines?

Answer 17

-Each child should understand the risks and benefits of resistance training
-Competent and caring professionals should be in charge of program design
-Exercise environment should be safe and free of hazards
-Dynamic warm-ups should be included before training
-Static stretching should be performed after training when appropriate
-Child tolerance to exercise stress must be carefully monitored
-Begin with light loads to allow appropriate adjustments
+Gradually increase resistance as technique and strength improve
-One to three sets of 6-15 reps on a variety of movements can be performed
+Advanced multi joint exercises such as the snatch and clean and jerk may be incorporated into the program
++Requires appropriate load and technical proficiency
-2-3 non consecutive training sessions per week
+Youth with more training age may train more frequently
-Adult spotters should be available to assist the child in the event of a failed repetition
-Resistance should be periodized throughout the year
+Ensures sequential and varied stimulus
+Provides for adequate rest and recovery between cycles

Question 18

What are the sex differences in body size and composition pre and post puberty?

Answer 18

-Before puberty - essentially no difference
-Compared to men, on average adult women have:
+More body fat
+Excessive low body fat in women associated with health consequences
+Less muscle
+Lower bone mineral density
+Lighter total body weight
+Broader hips relative to waist and shoulder measurement
-Broad shoulders in men can support more muscle mass and have more mechanical advantage

Question 19

What are the strength and power output differences in the sexes?

Answer 19

-In absolute numbers, women typically have ⅔ the strength of men
+Lower body strength in women closer to male values than upper body strength
-Sex-related differences in body composition account for much of this discrepancy
-Relative to bodyweight:
+Lower body strength similar to men
+Upper body strength is still less than men
-Relative to fat-free mass:
+Differences in strength tend to disappear
+Eccentric strength may be more similar to men than concentric strength relative to fat-free mass
-Overall comparisons suggest that specific muscle quality is not sex-specific
-Power output differences tend to mirror strength differences relative to body weight
-Differences in power output may also be a function of sex-related differences in rate of force development and recruitment strategy for muscle activation

Question 20

What are considerations for youth resistance training?

Answer 20

-Children aren’t mini adults
-Children should begin training at a level commensurate with:
+Maturity level
+Physical abilities
+Individual goals
-Better to underestimate rather than overestimate child’s ability
-Do not impose adult training programs and philosophies on children

Question 21

What are the physical responses children have to resistance training?

Answer 21

-Children as young as 5 have benefited from resistance training
+Must be programmed properly
+Maximum strength gains rate reported between 10%-90%
+Typically 30-40% improvement in strength
+Rate of change attenuated - requires continued progressive training
-Detraining occurs in children who stop resistance training - strength gains return to typical biological age levels
-Hypertrophy contributes to strength gains in adolescents and adults - less so for preadolescents
+Preadolescent boys testosterone level 20-60ng/100mL
+Testosterone in boys increases to 600ng/mL during adolescence
+Testosterone in females unchanged during adolescence
-Neural factors significant in preadolescent gains
-Increased recruitment, synchronization, motor unit activation, and firing frequency

Question 22

What are the benefits of resistance training for children?

Answer 22

-Increases strength, power, and endurance
-Decreases body fat, improves insulin sensitivity, and enhances cardiac function in obese children
-Enhances bone mineral density in children
-May decrease risk of osteoporosis later in life among women
-Preseason resistance training increases resistance to injury
-Overall increase in athletic performance

Question 23

What are potential risks for using resistance training with children?

Answer 23

-Appropriate resistance training for children relatively safe compared to typical sports and recreational activities
-Injuries typically the result of accidents caused by lack of supervision
-Low risk of epiphyseal plate fracture - although possible
+Generally associated with heavy overhead lifts without supervision

Question 24

What precautions should be taken to reduce injury risk in children?

Answer 24

-Evaluate children by sports medicine physician prior to starting a resistance training program
-Discuss the risks and importance of preparatory conditioning with parents
-Encourage children to participate in long-term training programs with adequate recovery time between seasons
-Training programs should be multidimensional and include the following components:
+Elements of resistance training
+Fundamental movement skills
+Speed and agility development
+Dynamic stabilization
-Implement well-planned recovery between sessions and competitions
-Ensure youth follow healthy lifestyle habits (sleep, hydration, nutrition etc.)
-Coaches should participate in continuing professional development programs
-Delay sports specialization until adolescence - expose children to a variety of sports

Question 25

What are women’s responses to exercise?

Answer 25

-Responses to exercise relative to pre-training baselines are similar in men and women
-Absolute strength gains tend to be higher in men
-Relative strength gains in terms of percentage increase tend to be higher in women
+May reflect lower baseline neuromuscular levels in women
-Short term hypertrophy gains (up to 16 weeks) similar between men and women
-Genetic disposition and baseline natural testosterone levels may affect individual hypertrophy responses in women

Question 26

What is the female athlete triad?

Answer 26

-Interrelationship between menstrual function, energy availability, and bone mineral density in female athletes
-Health-risk for females who train for prolonged periods with insufficient energy intake to meet energy expenditure
Can lead to:
+Reduced bmd and heightened risk of osteoporosis
+Amenorrhea - the absence of a menstrual cycle for more than three months
++Caused by reduced luteinizing hormone secretion from the pituitary gland
+Risks include:
++Bone stress fractures
++Endocrine and gastrointestinal complications
++Sporting performance decrements
-Resistance training helps attenuate age-related BMD decline via stress from mechanical loading
+Preadolescence is an opportune time to participate in weight-bearing activities to enhance BMD
-Nutritional intake must support training demands to stimulate adaptation and recovery
+Must ensure sufficient calcium, vitamin D, and protein among other nutrients
+Risk of eating disorders often associated with subjective scoring measures based on physical appearance (i.e. gymnastics, dance)

Question 27

What are program design considerations for women?

Answer 27

-Well rounded diet
-Very little differences between appropriate strength training programs for men and women
-Program should enhance the needs of the individual sport
-The main difference is the absolute workload
-Resistance training in young female athletes crucial for ensuring they reach their genetic potential
-Main female-specific concerns are upper body strength development and injury prevention

Question 28

What are program design considerations for women for upper body strength development?

Answer 28

-Emphasizing upper body strength and power in women is crucial for strength and conditioning
+Especially for upper body strength-power dependent sports
+Worthwhile to add 1-2 extra upper body exercises or sets
+Incorporating snatch and clean derivatives particularly effective

Question 29

What are program design considerations for women and reducing acl injuries?

Answer 29

-Female players in sports such as basketball and soccer are 6 times more likely to suffer an ACL injury potentially due to:
+Joint laxity
+Limb alignment
+Body movement
+Notch dimensions
+Ligament size
+Skill level
+Hormonal levels
+Shoe surface interactions
-Programs should include:
+Resistance, plyometrics, agility, and balance training
+Focus on correct movement mechanics during jumping, landing, twisting, cutting

Question 30

What effect does aging have on musculoskeletal health?

Answer 30

-Steady decline of bone and muscle loss with age
-Sarcopenia - loss of muscle mass and strength
-Neuromotor function changes as well

Question 31

What risks are there for aging and bone health?

Answer 31

-Increases risks of falls, fractures, and long term disability
-Osteopenia - BMD between -1 and -2.5 standard deviations from adult mean
-Osteoporosis - BMD below -.5 standard deviations from adult mean
-Both conditions increase the risk of bone fracture

Question 32

What is sarcopenia?

Answer 32

-Loss of muscle mass and strength
-Muscle cross-section area begins decreasing around age 30
-Most pronounced in women
-Results from decreased physical activity and gradual denervation of muscle fibers
-Decreases power as well as strength due to gradual denervation and decrease in size and number of fibers
-May rapidly affect the ability to safely perform daily movements

Question 33

How does neuromotor function change with aging?

Answer 33

-Decreases in reaction time, balance, and postural stability
-Preactivation - muscle contraction before ground contact
+Helps increase limb stiffness via fast stretch reflexes
-Co-contraction muscle contraction following ground contact
-Increases to offset the decrease in balance and coordination
-Use of low-intensity plyometrics, balance and dynamic stabilization and proprioception develop the ability to react more efficiently with the ground
-Seniors must engage with and adhere to multidimensional programs that incorporate resistance and balance training
-Balance and flexibility must accompany resistance training to reduce risk of falls

Question 34

How do older adults respond to resistance training?

Answer 34

-Age does not enhance or reduce the ability of the musculoskeletal system to respond to resistance training
-Resistance training in older adults can improve:
+Muscle strength
+Muscle power
+Muscle mass
+Bone mineral density
+Functional capabilities
+Quality of life
+Risk of mortality (decrease)
-High-velocity resistance training effective for improving power in seniors
-Maximal muscle strength training more effective than low-to-moderate intensity training

Question 35

What are program considerations for older adults?

Answer 35

-Program design considerations for older adults
+Fundamental principles are the same for older adults as younger adults
+Seniors should complete medical history and risk-factor questionnaires
+Physician clearance may be required
++Before vigorous activity with cardiac rehab patients and cancer survivors
+Strength tests should be performed using the intended equipment for the training program
+Ultimately free weight, multi joint resistance training offer the greatest training stimulus
+Begin with low volume and intensity for untrained seniors
+Avoid valsalva maneuver
+Perform low-intensity warm-up of 5-10 minutes prior to resistance training
+Progress from 1 set of 8-12 repetitions at 40%-50% 1rm for 6-10 repetitions with high velocity
+Perform exercises using only a pain-free range of motion
+Allow 48-72 hours between training sessions
+Begin with a training frequency of twice per week