chapter 8: memory

Question 1

refers to both the structures and processes involved in both the storage and retrieval of information

Answer 1

memory

Question 2

typically refers to our recollection of a specific event

Answer 2

a memory

Question 3

a way of describing the processes involved in memory using terms and phrases that relate them to looking around in physical or virtual space

Answer 3

search metaphor

Question 4

How did Plato and Aristotle describe memory

Answer 4

they described memory as a wax tablet
- experiences pressed into the tablet, creating shapes and patterns of writing
- out task is to search over the tablet and find the correct written passage when we try to remember (search metaphor)

Question 5

how has the metaphor of memory transformed

Answer 5

earlier metaphors - rooms of a house, a library, a purse
recent metaphors - oriented toward computers and recording devices (virtual space)

Question 6

the inability to remember something (couldn’t find it in our mental space”

Answer 6

failure of search

Question 7

why search metaphor isn’t the best explanation

Answer 7

it can’t explain why we have trouble remembering things we’ve seen hundreds of times, if a memory is like an object it should be findable

Question 8

describes how we primarily use memory to cobble together a useful response using both what we know and the situation around us

Answer 8

reconstruction metaphor

Question 9

why is the reconstruction metaphor better

Answer 9

rather than searching specifically for an information, you create a useful response given the situation at hand and what you’ve stored (adaptive response)

Question 10

models that talk about how memories are formed and retrieved, draws comparisons between human memory and how a computer processes information

Answer 10

information-processing models

Question 11

the process of how information is initially learned

Answer 11

encoding

Question 12

the problem the brain must solve to transform an experience into a memory

Answer 12

encoding problem

Question 13

the process of maintaining information about an event over time (how information is physically represented in the brain)

Answer 13

storage

Question 14

the problem the brain must solve to maintain information in the brain over time, whether short or long

Answer 14

storage problem

Question 15

a system that keeps information translated by the senses briefly active in a relatively unaltered, unexamined form.
allows us to perceive the world as a unified whole rather than a series of staggered images and sounds (iconic and echoic memories)

Answer 15

sensory memory

Question 16

a system that actively holds onto a limited amount of information at the front of the mind so we can manipulate and process it (short-term or working memory)
often compared to RCM in a computer in a computer-driven metaphor

Answer 16

immediate memory

Question 17

three main properties of immediate memory

Answer 17

representation, duration, and capacity

Question 18

described in terms of how the information is represented or “coded”

Answer 18

representation

Question 19

the mental experience of hearing yourself talk “in your head”, taken as evidence for verbal representation in immediate memory

Answer 19

inner voice

Question 20

evidence for the existence of inner voice?

Answer 20

errors people make in immediate recall (sound-alike errors)
proves that immediate memory are primarily auditory because we sound-alike errors are more common than look-alike errors

Question 21

the mental experience of seeing something using your imagination, taken as evidence for visual representation in immediate memory

Answer 21

inner eye

Question 22

how do we know inner eye exists

Answer 22

when a mental image in bigger, it’s easier to answer questions about the image, which applies to real images as well, tells us that mental imagery operates similarly to actual imagery

Question 23

how long a memory system can contain information before it is forgotten (indefinite with rehearsal but only three seconds or so without rehearsal)

Answer 23

duration

Question 24

the process of repeating information to yourself, “re-hearing” information over and over again

Answer 24

rehearsal

Question 25

how much information can be held in a memory system at any one time, typically considered to be whatever you can rehearse in roughly 2 seconds

Answer 25

capacity

Question 26

the number of items that can be kept active in immediate memory at one time

Answer 26

memory span

Question 27

a process of arranging information into compact meaningful sections so that they can be more easily rehearsed in immediate memory

Answer 27

chunking

Question 28

a model of immediate memory that emphasizes its role as a system for manipulating information in consciousness

Answer 28

working memory model (Baddeley's model)

Question 29

two places where information is managed in working memory model

Answer 29

phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad

Question 30

where auditory and verbal information is temporarily stored and manipulated

Answer 30

phonological loop

Question 31

representation of the inner eye in the model, represents a place where visual and spatial information is stored and manipulated

Answer 31

visuospatial sketchpad

Question 32

a hypothetical portion of the working memory model that directs the activities of working memory, including the phonological loop, the visuospatial sketchpad, and the flow of information between working and long-term memory

Answer 32

central executive

Question 33

how many seconds does the amount of information in immediate memory begin to drop off precipitously

Answer 33

3 seconds

Question 34

memory systems that we use to store and recall information over extended periods of time (practically limitless in total storage capacity)

Answer 34

long-term memory

Question 35

three types of long-term memory

Answer 35

episodic, semantic, and procedural memory

Question 36

autobiographical memories that are based on life events, whose contents pertain to specific events (episodes)

Answer 36

episodic memories

Question 37

memories whose contents relate to specific facts and pieces of meaningful information not based on personal experience (useful for language and other general knowledge)

Answer 37

semantic memories

Question 38

memories who contents pertain to how something is done (recalls the process)

Answer 38

procedural memory

Question 39

refers to a process of actively manipulating information in immediate memory to meaningfully connect it to other information already stored in long-term memory

Answer 39

elaborative rehearsal

Question 40

involves making meaningful connection to existing knowledge (encodes information semantically, based on meaning) more effective in remembering information

Answer 40

deep processing

Question 41

encoding information based on only its surface characteristics

Answer 41

shallow processing

Question 42

types of elaborations

Answer 42

- imagery: associating an information with an image already stored in your memory (creating a vivid imagination) - organization: remembering information using categorical or organizational strategies - distinctiveness: enhancing memory emphasizing differences among items that initially seem highly similar - self-reference: interprets information in relation to oneself

Question 43

which two type of elaboration are recommended to use in combination with one another

Answer 43

organization and distinctiveness

Question 44

cons of each elaboration methods

Answer 44

- imagery: information encoded isn't an exact representation of an object, it's more abstract - organization: often leads to mistakes within the category - distinctiveness: time-consuming, difficult to remember large amounts of information - self-reference: more difficult with more detailed material, less effective for people from more collectivist cultures

Question 45

what are the four strategies to structure the encoding process to ensure effective learning

Answer 45

- the use of spacing - the use of mnemonics - the use of techniques that fit well with the functions of out brains - the use of retrieval practice

Question 46

"cramming", refers to the repeated exposure to or study of to-be-remembered information over a very short period of time or without gaps between repetitions (isn't effective for longer term)

Answer 46

massed practice

Question 47

the observation that learning is most robust when repeated exposure to or study of to-be-remembered material occurs over a longer timeframe (improves episodic, semantic, and procedural memory)

Answer 47

spacing effect

Question 48

techniques used to improve memory that provide a framework for one to engage in kinds of meaningful processing outlines for encoding and recall

Answer 48

mnemonics

Question 49

a mnemonic technique based around a catchy rhyme, creating mental associations between items to be remembered and items that are already associated with numbers

Answer 49

peg-word technique

Question 50

a mnemonic memory strategy to help people remember new information in sequential order, involves using imagined physical locations to aid memory (dates back to ancient Rome and Greece) (mind palace)

Answer 50

method of loci

Question 51

a mnemonics memory strategy that provides us with cues to the to-be-remembered information's organizational structure

Answer 51

phrases, acronyms, and initializations

Question 52

a subfield of memory research focused on investigating how the brain is designed to learn and remember given evolutionary considerations

Answer 52

adaptive memory

Question 53

what did memory researchers discover from adaptive memory

Answer 53

- information processed for its relevance to our own survival leads to high levels of later recall - living, animal things are more memorable than non-living, inanimate things

Question 54

a popular method for memorizing long random numbers and decks of playing cards

Answer 54

person-action-object (PAO) strategy

Question 55

"testing effect", the phenomenon that the repeated retrieval of information is more useful for long-term memory than other tasks, such as the repeated reading of the same information (effective for later recall in longer term)

Answer 55

retrieval practice

Question 56

the problem the brain must solve to recover information from long-term memory

Answer 56

retrieval problem

Question 57

pieces of information in the present that help us remember events from the past - central to remembering - can be specific or broad - thought to be the reason why elaboration works so well at improving memory

Answer 57

cues

Question 58

remembering previously learned information without any other context to aid in remembering

Answer 58

free recall

Question 59

remembering previously learned information with the aid of a clue or information that helps provide context

Answer 59

cued recall

Question 60

the idea that retrieval cues are only useful as long as they match the original context of how to-be-remembered information was originally learned

Answer 60

encoding specificity principle/encoding-retrieval match

Question 61

the observation that engaging in similar processes at both encoding and retrieval tends to enhance recall on a final test

Answer 61

transfer-appropriate processing

Question 62

remembering that occurs consciously and with intent

Answer 62

explicit memory

Question 63

remember that occurs without conscious realization or intent

Answer 63

implicit memory

Question 64

how do we assess implicit memory performance

Answer 64

it is assessed by determining whether a person's actions or responses are influence by previous experience, without specifically asking the person to recall the experience

Question 65

what did Danial Schacter refer memory errors as

Answer 65

the seven sins of memory, which comes in two types: errors of omission and errors of commission

Question 66

memory errors where information cannot be brought to mind

Answer 66

error omission

Question 67

memory errors where wrong or unwanted information is brought to mind

Answer 67

error of commission

Question 68

three types of errors of omission

Answer 68

transience, absent-mindedness, and blocking

Question 69

"forgetting", a description for how sometimes we are unable to retrieve information because it has been forgotten due to the interference of information we have processes in the meantime (due to lack of appropriate cues to aid recall)

Answer 69

transience

Question 70

the theory that memories fade away due to the passage of time (can't explain the vast majority of forgetting)

Answer 70

decay

Question 71

the inability to retrieve information due to the influence of newer, similar information

Answer 71

retroactive interference

Question 72

the inability to retrieve information due to the influence of older, similar information

Answer 72

proactive interference

Question 73

a description of how memories sometimes are simply unavailable because of a failure to encode them (due to lack of attention or a failure to elaborately rehearse the information)

Answer 73

absent-mindedness

Question 74

a description for how not enough distinctive cues are available to help us recover a specific information (the information is blocked when cues does not effectively reinstate the original encoding conditions)

Answer 74

blocking

Question 75

a state when someone cannot remember a piece of information but have a powerful feeling that they know exactly what they are trying to remember

Answer 75

tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) state

Question 76

four types of errors of commission

Answer 76

misattribution, suggestibility, bias, and persistence

Question 77

occurs when we incorrectly recall the source of the information we are trying to remember

Answer 77

misattribution

Question 78

a description of a feeling that one has already experienced a sequence of events (can't remember the source of the information)

Answer 78

déjá vu

Question 79

memories for the details surrounding events that are both surprising and particularly significant (susceptible to errors)

Answer 79

flashbulb memories

Question 80

a description for how memories can sometimes be altered by context in which they are remembered to better fit the current context

Answer 80

suggestibility

Question 81

a phenomenon in which misleading information alters a subsequent memory, typically an eyewitness account

Answer 81

misinformation effect

Question 82

how to prevent suggestibility

Answer 82

questioners should ask neutrally worded questions that don't make any assumptions about what happened

Question 83

the result of the therapist unintentionally guiding clients to imagine events that had never occured

Answer 83

repressed memories

Question 84

a description of how memories can change as a result of the influence of knowledge and beliefs

Answer 84

bias

Question 85

a highly organized sets of facts and knowledge about specific kinds of information (highly useful for remembering) (information could be overgeneralized or exceptions to the schemas leading to bias)

Answer 85

memory schemas

Question 86

a description of how memories are sometimes retrieved when they are not wanted (typically negative or traumatic memories) (PTSD)

Answer 86

persistence

Question 87

how is forgetting helpful

Answer 87

helps us smooth over unpleasant events in our lives and helps us to keep in mind only relevant information

Question 88

an exceptionally rare medical condition that leads to near perfect autobiographical recall (remembering everything) (larger amygdala and far more connection to the hippocampus)

Answer 88

hyperthymesia

Question 89

memory loss due to physical damage or problems in the brain

Answer 89

amnesia

Question 90

the loss of memories prior to a specific traumatic event or other conditions

Answer 90

retrograde amnesia

Question 91

the inability to make new memories into long-term memory (due to specific brain damage to the hippocampus)

Answer 91

anterograde amnesia

Question 92

Henry Molaison

Answer 92

suffered from severe seizure and was treated by removing his hippocampus, he had both retrograde and anterograde amnesia

Question 93

what is not responsible for the sin of transience

Answer 93

decay/time, information that occurs in the time that elapses is