Chapter 9

Question 1

Descriptive Research Methods

Answer 1

1) **Quantitative - ** explore objective facts
2) Qualitative - explore subjective meanings

Question 2

Quantitative Methods (4)

Answer 2

1) interviews
2) questionnaires
3) surveys
4) psychological tests
a) psychometric tests
b) projective tests

Question 3

Quantitative Methods → 1) Interviews

Answer 3

gathering facts

Question 4

Quantitative Methods → 2) Questionnaires

Answer 4

anonymously estimate characteristics of population based on sample

Question 5

Quantitative Methods → 3) Surveys

Answer 5

defined by purpose not form

Question 6

Quantitative Methods → 4) Psychological Tests

Answer 6

assess traits of individual

a) Psychometric - examine performance relative to norm (academic ability, personality)
b) Projective - infer characteristics based on reaction to stimuli
* problem - scoring

Question 7

Qualitative Methods → 1) Qualitative Interview

Answer 7

subjective experience

Question 8

Qualitative Methods → 2) Focus Groups

• Benefits

Answer 8

interview in groups

Benefits:

• interpersonal dynamics can be examined
• can interview multiple people at a time

Question 9

Qualitative Methods → 3) Ethnographic Research

Answer 9

cross-cultural investigations

• examine sub-cultures in mainstream culture

Question 10

Qualitative Methods → 4) Historical Research

Answer 10

examine past events based on historical records

Question 11

Descriptive Research Methods → Advantages (7)

Answer 11

1) Ecological Validity - studies relationships among variables as they naturally occur
2) Economy - cheaper
3) Practical Reasons - more applicable, hard to use exp. method
4) Ethical Reasons
5) Qualitative
6) Correlations
7) Preliminary to Experimental Research

Question 12

Qualitative Methods (4)

Answer 12

1) qualitative interview
2) focus group
3) ethnographic research
4) historical research

Question 13

Quantitative Methods → 1) Interviews

Answer 13

gathering info about people by conversing with them in face-to-face dialogue

Question 14

Quantitative Methods → 1) Interviews

General Requirements (7)

Answer 14

1) Establishment of Rapport
2) Statement of Purpose
3) Detached/Objective Attitude
4) Staying on Topic
5) Careful Wording of Questions
6) Knowing When to End
7) Accurate Record of Interviews

Question 15

General Requirements of Interviews

1) Establishment of Rapport

Answer 15

comfortability, small talk

close/harmonious relationship in which people concerned understand each other’s feelings/ideasandcommunicate well.

Question 16

General Requirements of Interviews

2) Statement of Purpose

Answer 16

main way interviews differ from conversation

articulating the particular goal/theme of interview

Question 17

General Requirements of Interviews

3) Detached/Objective Attitude

Answer 17

midpoint between cold/harsh & personally/emotionally invested or involved

• attitude conveyed is one that is personable but not personally involved

Question 18

General Requirements of Interviews

4) Staying on Topic

Answer 18

not to stray too much from main theme/topic

Question 19

General Requirements of Interviews

5) Careful Wording of Questions

Answer 19

as clear & unambiguous as possible

(2) types of questions to avoid:
1) Ambiguous - can be interpreted in 2 or more ways (how are you liking your classes?)
2) Loaded - suggests what answer should be (when’s the last time you cheated on a test?)

Question 20

General Requirements of Interviews

7) Accurate Record of Interviews

Answer 20

video or audio recording

• to record how something is said (tone of voice) & nonverbal gestures (anxious, looking around)

Question 21

Quantitative

Types of Interviews (4)

Answer 21

1) Unstructured Interview
2) Structured Interview
3) Standardized Structured Interview
4) Mixed Question Interview

Question 22

1) Unstructured Interview

Answer 22

interviews in which interviewer provides minimal direction to interviewee

Question 23

2) Structured Interview

Answer 23

interviews with pre-specified:

1) set of topics
2) order of discussion

Question 24

3) Standardized Structured Interview

Answer 24

interviews with pre-specified:

1) wording of questions
2) order of questions

Question 25

4) **Mixed Question** Interview

Answer 25

interviews using **different** kinds of questions ## Footnote 1) **open**-ended 2) **fixed** option (closed-ended) 3) **rating** scale questions (*diminished benefits of interview style**)*

Question 26

**Problems** with Interviews (3)

Answer 26

1) Interviewer **Bias** 2) Interviewee **Dishonesty (Social Desirability)** 3) **Implementation** Costs

Question 27

1) **Interviewer** Bias - (2) types

Answer 27

affect amount & quality of info given 1) **personal** bias - *eye contact, personal characteristics, tone of voice* 2) **social/ethnic** bias - *class → age, SES, gender, ethnicity, racial background*

Question 28

2) Interviewer **Dishonesty** (**Social Desirability**)

Answer 28

visible presence fosters **social desirability** more than in questionnaires ## Footnote *- choose alternative that is more socially acceptable or desirable*

Question 29

3) **Implementation** Costs * (3) types

Answer 29

1) **Training** Costs - *of interviewers* 2) **Travel** Costs - *to interview* 3) **Administration** Costs - *making/cancelling appointments, coordinating etc.*

Question 30

**Advantages** of Interviews (5)

Answer 30

1. **know** who person is 2. higher **response** rate- hard to turn down personal request 3. best way to gain **sensitive** info (psych disorders, intrapersonal relationships) 4. **flexibility**- correct misinterpretations 5. monitor **non-verbal behavior** - facial expression, gesture, paraliniguistics, body language

Question 31

(5) main steps in designing a **questionnaire**

Answer 31

1) determine **purpose** 2) determine **types** of **questions** 3) write the **items** 4) determine how data will be **analyzed** 5) determine method of **administration**

Question 32

1) determine **purpose**

Answer 32

what do i expect to accomplish?

Question 33

2) determine **types **of **questions**

Answer 33

**closed-ended - **limits respondents to alternatives determined in advance by questionnaire's design **open-ended - **answer in own words

Question 34

3) write the **items** (7) tips on composing good questionnaire items

Answer 34

1) address **single issue** per item 2) avoid **bias** 3) make **alternatives** clear 4) beware of **social desirability tendency** 5) beware of **acquiescence ** 6) determine **format** of item 7) **sequence** items

Question 35

1) address single **issue **per item

Answer 35

**unambiguous**, clear not double-barreled

Question 36

2) avoid **bias**

Answer 36

write Q in way that will not bias results **example**: * do you beleive in killing unborn babies?* * should women be forced to bear unwanted children?*

Question 37

3) make **alternatives **clear

Answer 37

particular need to write closed-ended Qs in a way that **options** are distinctly **different** from each other & they cover all **possibilities** → answers must be **exhaustive **& **mutually exclusive **

Question 38

Exhaustive

Answer 38

categories defined so that all possible cases will fall into one of them *all cases must fall into 1 or another of the alternatives*

Question 39

Mutually Exclusive

Answer 39

categories defined so that membership in one rules out membership in another ## Footnote * no individual case could belong to more than one category at a time *

Question 40

4) beware of **social desirability tendency**

Answer 40

characteristic of certain responses that cause people to choose it even if it does not represent their true tendency/opinion ## Footnote *bias when respondents percieve one alternative as more **socially acceptable** than another*

Question 41

What is used to detect **dishonest answers?**

Answer 41

**Verification Key:** set of questions designed to detect **dishonest** & if person has tendency to be overly influenced by **social desirability **

Question 42

5) beware of **acquiescence ** what questionnaire format is highly susceptible to this bias?

Answer 42

tendency to agree with statement on a question regardless of its content – (Questionnaire with all **binary closed-ended Qs** are highly susceptible to bias caused by this)

Question 43

6) Determine **format **of item

Answer 43

depends on type of question (T/F, MC, ratings) ## Footnote **visual analog scale** **likert scale** **branching items**

Question 44

**Visual Analog Scale (VAS) ** - can be used to indicate?

Answer 44

question that askes for response by marking line b/w **min **& **max **values for statement *can be used to indicate respondent's **degree** of **agreement/disagreement** with a particular position*

Question 45

Likert Scale

Answer 45

question asking for rating of the **extent of agreement/disagreement **with a statement → a rating scale

Question 46

Branching Items

Answer 46

set of Qs that enable respondent to **move through** survey in **different ways depending** upon **responses **

Question 47

7) **Sequence** the Items

Answer 47

order of items → answers to Qs may be **biased** if they follow some others start off broad & get more specific to topic of interest ***example: **before asking about campus security, you would want to know if security was even an issue with students *

Question 48

4) Determine how **Data** will be **Analyzed**

Answer 48

how questionnaire is to be **scored **& **analyzed ** - decide what **statistics **to use, if you will be able to draw **proper conclusions **from data - if you think certain groups of people may **answer differently** → need Qs to permit **classification** on these **dimensions**

Question 49

5) Determine Method of **Administration** (4) modes

Answer 49

1) **Face-to-Face** 2) **Written** Response 3) **Computerized** Administration 4) **Telephone** Administration

Question 50

# Define and distinguish between **open-ended** and **closed-ended** questions.

Answer 50

**Open:** answer in own words **Closed**: limits respondents to pre-determined alternatives

Question 51

Advantages & Disadvantages of: a) **Open-ended Qs**

Answer 51

**ADVANTAGES**: can answer more **completely**, reveal **reasoning**, more likely to **discover** something **not anticipated** in design **DISADVANTAGES**: **harder to code** b/c answers in **narrative** form, categorize responses **after** (breaks cardinal rule)

Question 52

**Advantages** & **Disadvantages** of: b) **Closed-ended** Qs

Answer 52

**ADVANTAGES**: easier to code, fewer off-the-wall answers, dont need to think as hard or be as articulate to formulate **DISADVANTAGES: **issues may be too **complex** to reduce to small set of alternatives, may **not agree** with any, puts **words in mouth**, **misinterpretation** of Q is hard to discover

Question 53

How is the **social desirability tendency** detected?

Answer 53

by using a **verification key - **a set of questions designed to detect **dishonest answers** & if a person has tendency to be overly influenced by **social desirability **

Question 54

**Acquiescence** Tendency

Answer 54

tendency to agree with statement on question **regardless** of its content

Question 55

Branching Items * advantages

Answer 55

**set of Qs** that enable respondents to **move** through questionnaire in **different ways depending** upon **responses** * can **skip** innapropriate/irrelevant Qs & more through more efficiently

Question 56

(4) methods of administrating a questionnaire

Answer 56

1. face-to-face 2. written responses 3. computerized administration 4. telephone administration

Question 57

**Advantages** (5) & **Disadvantages** (3) of: **Face-to-Face Administration**

Answer 57

* establish rapport * direct attention to material * motive them to answer carefully * guarantee order of administration * correct misinterpretations * social desirability tendency * expensive * time-consuming

Question 58

Advantages & Disadvantages of: Written Responses

Answer 58

* efficient use of time & money * low cost * lower response rate * possible misinterpretation * can't determine seriousnes of respondent

Question 59

Advantages & Disadvantages of: **Computerized** Administration

Answer 59

* control sequencing & branching * reduce social desirability * available 24/7 * allow high level of participation without high cost * same problems as written responses * security of responding * storage of survey info must be ensured without violating privacy of respondent

Question 60

Advantages & Disadvantages of: Telephone Administration

Answer 60

* low cost * computer-assisted interview * conducted from central location & interviewers can be supervised * reduced external validity →less people with home phones *

Question 61

Problems created by **low response rates** to surveys

Answer 61

- data from people **motivated** to respond - **biased** in direction of more vocal people - **quality** of data is direct **function** of **response rate** →researchers need at least **50%** & prefer **90%**

Question 62

(4) types of samples

Answer 62

1) **Haphazard** ## Footnote **2) Purposive** **3) Convenience** **4) Probability**

Question 63

1) **Haphazard** Sample

Answer 63

popn subgroup selected using hit-or-miss → does not follow any systematic way of selecting participants (

Question 64

2) **Purposive** Sample

Answer 64

**non-random** sample chosen for some **characteristic** it possesses *ex) survey opinions of presidents of several leading colleges* *about desirable changes in college curriculum*

Question 65

3) **Convenience** Sample

Answer 65

non-random sample chosen for **practical reasons**

Question 66

4) **Probability** Sample

Answer 66

sample selected in way as to be **representative** of population - most rely on random sampling - permit one to apply various statistics

Question 67

**Random** Sample

Answer 67

sample in which every member of popn has **equal** & **independant** chance of being selected

Question 68

Sampling Frame

Answer 68

population as it is defined for purposes of selecting subjects for study ## Footnote *→popn that you work with for particular study*

Question 69

Element

Answer 69

**individual member** of a sampling frame

Question 70

**Systematic** Sample

Answer 70

**probability** sample that is **not randomly selected**

Question 71

Problems using **Systematic Samples**

Answer 71

structure may result in **bias** *taking every n*th *individual* *of structured list may result in bias*

Question 72

(3) types of **random samples**

Answer 72

1) **Simple** Random 2) **Stratified** Random 3) **Cluster**

Question 73

1) **Simple Random** Sample

Answer 73

group chosen from entire popn such that every member has equal & independant chance of being selected in a single sample

Question 74

2) **Stratified** Random Sample

Answer 74

2 or more subsamples are represented according to some predetermined proportion, generally in same proportion as they exist in popn (*treat popn as 2 or more subpopulations & create seperate random sample of each)* *ex) same-sex ratio, age ratio etc.*

Question 75

3) **Cluster** Sample

Answer 75

group selected using **clusters/groupings** from larger population *ex) rather than taking 1/10 students of each class, randomly select 1/10 of classes to study*

Question 76

**Multistage** Sampling

Answer 76

form of **cluster sampling** in which clusters are further broken down by taking samples from each cluster *ex) selecting one or more highschols within each geographical area* *& then selecting seniors within each*

Question 77

Quantitative Methods → 2) **Questionnaire**s

Answer 77

gathering info about people **anonymously** using **standardized** series of Qs

Question 78

**Components** of Questionnaire (4)

Answer 78

1) **Preamble** → intro of *purpose* & *instructions* 2) **Identification** Questions→ demographic Qs, background info 3) **Research** Questions → make up data 4) **Branching** Instructions

Question 79

**Types** of Questionnaire Items (7)

Answer 79

1) Fixed-Option 2) Rating Scale 3) Yes-No 4) True-False 5) Likert-Scale (Agree-Disagree) 6) Funnel Questions 7) Open-ended Questions

Question 80

1) Fixed-Option

Answer 80

Qs with **qualitatively distinct** response alternatives (type/kind)

Question 81

2) Rating Scale

Answer 81

Qs with **quantitatively** distinct response alternatives * **3** types

Question 82

**(3) types** of Rating-Scale Items

Answer 82

1) **Categorical** → quantitative dimension but response based on adjective **2) Numerical** → represented more explicitly in numerical form **3) Graphical** → for responses on continuum (mark vertical line along horizontal line)

Question 83

3) Yes-No

Answer 83

**Binary-choice** Qs on matters of fact

Question 84

4) True-False

Answer 84

**Binary decision** Qs on particular theme

Question 85

5) Likert-Scale (Agree-Disagree)

Answer 85

Qs on **attitudes** or **opinions**

Question 86

6) Funnel Questions

Answer 86

series of related Qs soliciting progressively more detailed information * discourages dishonest answers b/c have to follow-up* * branching items within*

Question 87

7) Open-ended Questions

Answer 87

Qs that respondents can a**nswer in their own words**

Question 88

Sources of **Questionnaire Bias** (2)

Answer 88

1) **Question** Bias 2) **Response** Bias

Question 89

1) **Question** Bias * (4) types

Answer 89

1) Double-barreled 2) Loaded 3) Leading 4) Double Negatives

Question 90

1) Double-barreled

Answer 90

items that ask 2 seperate Qs simultaneously

Question 91

2) Loaded

Answer 91

items that contain **emotionally charged** or **value-laden** term *"do you feel sleazy magazine should be openly displayed at local newstands?"*

Question 92

3) **Leading** Qs

Answer 92

items that tend to **influence responses** in a **certain direction** ## Footnote *do you agree with most federal policy analysts that reducing deficit is our most urgent fiscal priority?*

Question 93

4) **Double Negatives**

Answer 93

items that use **2 negative expressions** to convey a **positive idea**

Question 94

2) **Response** Bias * (4) types

Answer 94

1) Acquiescence ("Yea-Saying") 2) Dissension ("Nay-Saying") 3) Deviation 4) Social Desirability

Question 95

1) Acquiescence ("Yea-Saying") 2) Dissension ("Nay-Saying")

Answer 95

1) tendency to **agree** with items regardless of their content 2) endency to **disagree** with items regardless of their content

Question 96

Solution to **Response Bias** caused by **Acquiescence & Dissension**?

Answer 96

Balanced Items ***example:*** * T/F Qs:* * some of my high school friends enjoy reading* * none of my high school friends enjoy reading*

Question 97

3) Deviation

Answer 97

tendency to answer items in **extreme way** regardless of their content

Question 98

4) Social Desirability

Answer 98

tendency to answer questions in socially acceptable way regardless of correctness of answer

Question 99

Solution to Response Bias? (specifically **Deviation** & **Social Desirability**)

Answer 99

**Forced-choice Inventory** ## Footnote Example: ***Choose A or B:*** * ***A:** I like to read in my spare time* * ***B:** I am active in sports* * ***A:** I feel like blaming others when things go wrong* * ***B:** I feel that I am generally inferior to others*

Question 100

General tips on **Questionnaire Wording** (5)

Answer 100

1) avoid words with **double meaning** 2) avoid overly **lengthy** questions 3) ask questions **based on respondent's own experience** 4) Design entire questionnaire around **theoretical rationale** 5) **Pre-test** questionnaire on **test sample**

Question 101

Quantitative Methods → 3) **Surveys**

Answer 101

administering interview/questionnaire to **sample** of individuals to **estimate characteristic** of population

Question 102

Confidence level

Answer 102

**probability** that **true population value** falls **within** **tolerance level **

Question 103

Tolerance Level (Precision)

Answer 103

**range of values** within which **true population** **value** **falls** with **specified probability**

Question 104

Reasons for Sampling (3)

Answer 104

1) **Feasability → **less expensive/time-consuming 2) **Accuracy → **less errors (people may not answer seriously or misinterpret data) 3) **Unobtrusiveness**

Question 105

Sample size determined by? (3)

Answer 105

1) confidence & tolerance levels 2) type of sampling design used 3) variability (increases with increased size)

Question 106

Sampling Designs (2)

Answer 106

Probability Sampling Nonprobability Sampling

Question 107

Probability vs. Nonprobability sampling

Answer 107

**Probability** →known probability of each person falling in sample →allows for statistical analysis **Nonprobability → **unknown probability of individual being in sample

Question 108

Types of Probability Sampling (3)

Answer 108

1) Simple Random 2) Cluster 3) Stratified

Question 109

Probability Sampling → 1) **Simple Random**

Answer 109

Sampling such that every member of population has **equal** & **independent** chance of being selected

Question 110

Probability Sampling → 2) **Cluster** Sampling

Answer 110

random sampling in (2) phases: * primary selection units (**cluster, groups**) * secondary selection units (**individuals within groups**)

Question 111

Probability Sampling → 3) Stratified Sampling

Answer 111

random sampling from **mutually** **exclusive** & **exhaustive** strata in population

Question 112

Types of Stratified Sampling (2)

Answer 112

1) Proportional Stratified Sampling 2) Equal Stratified Sampling

Question 113

1) Proportional stratified sampling

Answer 113

sample size of each stratum is **proportionate** to population size (each stratum has the same sampling fraction)

Question 114

2) **Equal** Stratified Sampling

Answer 114

each strata is determined percentage of sample

Question 115

**Haphazard** Sampling

Answer 115

according to who is around

Question 116

Purposive Sampling

Answer 116

non-random sample chosen for some characteristic it possesses

Question 117

Convenience Sampling

Answer 117

chosen for availability/convenience

Question 118

Systematic Sampling

Answer 118

picked in systematic way (violates independance principle)

Question 119

Quota Sampling

Answer 119

try to match up characteristics (ex. male vs female)

Question 120

Quantitative Methods → (4) Psychological Tests

Answer 120

administering **standardized** **test** to measure sample of individual’s **behavior**

Question 121

Psychological Tests - (4) types

Answer 121

1) Aptitude 2) Achievement 3) Personality 4) Projective