Chapter Twelve SUGAR

Question 1

What do biochemists refer to when they talk about ‘sugar’?

Answer 1

A whole host of very simple carbohydrate molecules characterized by their sweet taste and ability to dissolve in water.

Question 2

What is the chemical naming convention for sugars?

Answer 2

All chemical names of sugars end in ‘-ose.’

Question 3

What is the common usage of ‘sugar’ in everyday terms?

Answer 3

The sweet, powdered variety that we put in our coffee or tea, known as sucrose.

Question 4

What is blood sugar typically referring to?

Answer 4

Glucose, although other sugars can be found in the bloodstream at lower concentrations.

Question 5

How are simple carbohydrates defined compared to complex carbohydrates?

Answer 5

Simple carbohydrates are molecules of one or two sugars bound together, while complex carbohydrates are chains of sugars that can be tens of thousands long.

Question 6

What is the glycemic index?

Answer 6

A measure of how quickly carbohydrates are digested and absorbed into circulation, affecting blood sugar levels.

Question 7

What was the primary focus of Gerald Reaven’s research in the mid-1970s?

Answer 7

To test if simple carbohydrates produce a greater and faster rise in blood sugar and insulin after a meal.

Question 8

What did Jenkins and Wolever’s research involve?

Answer 8

Testing the blood-sugar response of sixty-two foods and comparing them to a glucose benchmark.

Question 9

What does a higher glycemic index indicate?

Answer 9

Faster digestion of carbohydrates and a greater resulting blood sugar and insulin response.

Question 10

How does the presence of fat and protein in food affect glycemic index?

Answer 10

It decreases the blood-sugar response and thus lowers the glycemic index.

Question 11

What is the implication of Jenkins and Wolever’s research regarding refined carbohydrates?

Answer 11

The more refined the carbohydrates, the greater the blood-sugar and insulin response.

Question 12

What diseases are suggested to be linked to increased refined carbohydrate consumption?

Answer 12

Atherosclerosis and diabetes, through metabolic syndrome abnormalities.

Question 13

What was the criticism of the glycemic index concept by Gerald Reaven?

Answer 13

He argued it was worthless if not dangerous, focusing too much on blood sugar rather than insulin.

Question 14

What was the official government position on sucrose for diabetics as per John Bantle in 1983?

Answer 14

Fructose could be considered the healthiest carbohydrate, and diabetics need not restrict sucrose.

Question 15

What was the FDA’s conclusion regarding sugar in 1986?

Answer 15

No conclusive evidence demonstrates a hazard from sugar.

Question 16

What type of corn syrup was introduced in the late 1970s that changed sugar consumption patterns?

Answer 16

High-fructose corn syrup (HFCS), specifically HFCS-55.

Question 17

How did high-fructose corn syrup affect sugar consumption trends?

Answer 17

It contributed to a significant increase in overall sugar consumption starting in the early 1960s.

Question 18

What misconception did consumers have about high-fructose corn syrup compared to sucrose?

Answer 18

Consumers failed to equate HFCS with traditional sugar, perceiving it as a healthier additive.

Question 19

What is the metabolic fate of fructose compared to glucose?

Answer 19

Fructose passes directly to the liver for metabolism, while glucose goes into the bloodstream.

Question 20

What is the result of increased fructose consumption in the diet?

Answer 20

Higher triglyceride levels in the blood due to fructose-induced lipogenesis.

Question 21

Who conducted significant research on fructose-induced lipogenesis?

Answer 21

Peter Mayes, Eleazar Shafrir, and Sheldon Reiser.

Question 22

True or False: The glycemic index measures the effect of glucose and fructose on blood sugar.

Answer 22

False. It primarily measures glucose’s effect on blood sugar.

Question 23

Fill in the blank: The bond in a sucrose molecule is composed of a single _______ molecule bonded to a single fructose molecule.

Answer 23

glucose

Question 24

Who conducted research on the health effects of fructose in the late 1960s and early 1980s?

Answer 24

Sheldon Reiser and colleagues at the USDA Carbohydrate Nutrition Laboratory

This research was pivotal in understanding the relationship between fructose consumption and health.

Question 25

In the 1980s, what was the prevailing belief regarding elevated triglycerides as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease?

Answer 25

People didn’t believe that elevated triglycerides were a risk factor ## Footnote The focus at that time was predominantly on cholesterol.

Question 26

What effect does fructose have on triglyceride synthesis in the liver?

Answer 26

Fructose increases triglyceride secretion by the liver ## Footnote This effect is exacerbated with long-term high-fructose diets.

Question 27

How does fructose affect glucose metabolism in the liver?

Answer 27

Fructose blocks glucose metabolism and synthesis into glycogen ## Footnote This leads to increased insulin secretion from the pancreas.

Question 28

What condition can high-fructose diets induce over time?

Answer 28

High insulin levels, high blood sugar, and insulin resistance ## Footnote This was confirmed by research on laboratory animals and human studies.

Question 29

True or False: Fructose has little effect on blood sugar and insulin in the short term.

Answer 29

True ## Footnote Fructose has a very low glycemic index in short-term consumption.

Question 30

What phenomenon is referred to as fructose-induced hypertension?

Answer 30

Fructose elevates blood pressure more than glucose ## Footnote This effect has been known since the 1960s.

Question 31

What are the components of sucrose and high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS-55)?

Answer 31

Both are effectively half glucose and half fructose ## Footnote This combination amplifies the harmful effects of sugar consumption.

Question 32

What is the harmful effect of sucrose according to Peter Mayes?

Answer 32

Sucrose stimulates both triglyceride production and insulin secretion ## Footnote This leads to increased triglyceride levels beyond what fructose alone would cause.

Question 33

What are advanced glycation end-products (AGEs)?

Answer 33

AGEs are the haphazard glomming together of proteins in cells and tissues ## Footnote Their formation is accelerated by fructose compared to glucose.

Question 34

How does fructose compare to glucose in terms of reactivity in the bloodstream?

Answer 34

Fructose is significantly more reactive than glucose ## Footnote It is about ten times more effective at inducing protein cross-linking.

Question 35

What was the conclusion of the British Committee on Medical Aspects of Food Policy (COMA) regarding sugar consumption?

Answer 35

Current sugar consumption carries no special metabolic risks for most people ## Footnote They acknowledged risks for those consuming more than 200 g per day.

Question 36

What did the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition emphasize in 2006 regarding fructose?

Answer 36

The need for research to establish at what level sugar consumption leads to disease ## Footnote This included effects like elevated blood pressure and triglycerides.

Question 37

What did the Institute of Medicine conclude about sugar consumption in 2002?

Answer 37

There was insufficient evidence to set an upper limit for sugar consumption ## Footnote They did not see a reason to pursue further research on fructose or sucrose.

Question 38

Why has research on fructose metabolism been limited?

Answer 38

Most research has been conducted by biochemists with little connection to nutrition literature ## Footnote This has led to observations on fructose being separated from discussions on sugar.

Question 39

Who is credited with the observation that fructose is the most lipogenic carbohydrate?

Answer 39

Harold Higgins of the Nutrition Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution ## Footnote This observation dates back to 1916.