child development

Question 1

why can’t the information taken in the lab be applied to real world settings for kids?

Answer 1

Kids are environmentally sensitive- they may behave one way in a lab and different in natural settings

Question 2

what did the crowley study (2001) see for differences between boys and girls?

Answer 2

• boys had more causal explanations from their parents than did girls (3x more)
• girls and boys were roughly equally likely to initiate engagement and manipulate the exhibits
• parents equally likely to talk to boys and girls how to manipulate exhibits and talk about visual, auditory or tactile info
• boys had more causal explanations from their parents than did girls (3x more)

Question 3

self-report measures?

Answer 3

• distributed to parents as may be too complex for children

- parents are more likely to paint their kids in a positive light

Question 4

how can we measure dishabituation in infants?

Answer 4

• through a look time measure
• kids look longer when surprised/interested

we can show them a pic of a cat and they will be engaged
when we continue to do this, they become less engaged and do not look as long (they habituate)
if we show a pic of a dog, and now their looking time increases again
we can see whether infants can discriminate between cat and dog

Question 5

what influences whether an infant shows novelty or familiarity preferences?

Answer 5

1. length of time: in the trial
2. Age: younger kids show familiarity preference, older kids more novel
3. complexity: termed the “goldilocks effect”, kids will look away if something is too boring or too complex as this may be overwhelming

Question 6

how do we measure physiological measures?

Answer 6

EEG.

pros: dense time resolution
cons: sparse spatial resolution- knowing where the signal came from can be tricky

Question 7

neuroimaging (fMRI)

Answer 7

• measure blood flow changes in brain
  pro: dense spatial resolution
  con: sparse time resolution- it takes 7-8 secs for blood to move around

Kids require ear protection and are given a recording to be played at home before coming into the lab to desensitise

Question 8

what are measures of body states?

Answer 8

respiration, heart rate, skin conductance

pros: lots of data, not under conscious control
con: sitting still

Question 9

what are measures of body movements/reactions?

Answer 9

eye tracking, reaction time, reflexes
we cant measure these via direct observation

pros: measure responses at basic level
cons: participants must follow instructions

Question 10

measures of physiology

Answer 10

pros: can look for mechanisms that influence behaviour
cons: need to sit still, follow instructions
can be difficult to draw direct links between cognition and physical behaviours

Question 11

what are cross-sectional designs?

Answer 11

• they tests different ages (cohorts) on the same thing

Question 12

what are longitudinal designs?

Answer 12

we measure the same kids over periods of time

e.g. test at 6, 16, 26

Question 13

what are time-lag/sequential designs

Answer 13

we contrast different cohorts at the same age

Question 14

what are some advantages of cross-sectional designs?

Answer 14

they are inexpensive, representative, tests become obsolete

Question 15

what are advantages of longitudinal designs?

Answer 15

we are measuring development as it occurs
face-validity
no cohort differences

Question 16

what are advantages of time lag

Answer 16

they take into account cohort differences seen in IQ, health gains, education etc
confounds are identified

Question 17

what are disadvantages of cross-sectional

Answer 17

cohort contrasts confound with age

Question 18

what are disadvantages of longitudinal

Answer 18

we get test wise
prone to attrition
costs and lifespan of researcher
we might not be able to generalise to broader population

Question 19

what happens in a still face procedure?/ what does this tell us?

Answer 19

babies typically gaze at parents 70% of time and smile 20%
parent interacts with 4-5 month old normally
parents they hold a neutral face for one minute
babies gaze drops to 50%
infants are sensitive to others’ expressions

Question 20

what is the visual cliff procedure/ what does this tell us

Answer 20

where the visual cliff is, a mother displays a toy
if the parent is displaying a positive expression, the baby is more likely to cross
if the parent is displaying a negative expression, the baby is not as likely to cross
only 21% of infants were disqualified
infants can use other people’s expressions to guide their behaviour and can tell the difference between positive and negative feelings

Question 21

can kids recognise different facial expressions- e.g. show me the person who is happy

Answer 21

2,3 and 4 yr olds, good at finding happy or sad, not angry or scared

age 5- can recognise most

Question 22

how to kids show emotion socially- the tower building contest

Answer 22

kids were challenged to a tower building contest
sometimes they won, lost or played for fun
most kids showed happy when they won or lost
only 4 kids were sad when they lost
4-6 year olds displayed proud expression

Question 23

how do kids show emotion when with peers or alone

Answer 23

kids were given a task to do with a friend either alone or together
they were either given a simple or really hard task
when alone, kids were more likely to stop expressing emotion
suggested this is when kids act like adults

Question 24

how do kids that have been rejected by peers show expression?

Answer 24

they show more facial and verbal anger than kids not rejected by peers

Question 25

how do kids who have been subjected to abuse show expression

Answer 25

they are more likely to have neutral expressions that are harder to recognise

Question 26

how do we learn language from nurture hypothesis

Answer 26

imitation and reinforcement

Question 27

what evidence is there for nurture- case of johann

Answer 27

4 year old found living with chimps did not speak but communicated with facial expression he grew up to learn german suggests he just needed exposure to learn language

Question 28

what evidence is there for nurture-case of Genie

Answer 28

she was found around 13 yrs old strapped to a chair in a dark room presumed she had no social interaction had language abilities of a 1 year old within 5 months, she could pass items of a test a 4 yr old could do and half of a 5-6 yr old she acquired word rules but not morphological ones e.g. ed, ing

Question 29

what hypothesis is genies case consistent with

Answer 29

consistent with sensitive period hypothesis NOT pure nuture

Question 30

what is the critical/sensitive period hypothesis

Answer 30

we need to learn language at a certain time period (thought to end at puberty) or it will be disordered

Question 31

what is the strong form of critical period hypothesis

Answer 31

language must be learnt at a certain time otherwise it cannot be acquired

Question 32

what is the weak form of critical period hypothesis

Answer 32

language can be acquired outside a sensitive period but it will be disordered

Question 33

what is overextension

Answer 33

this is where kids will label every furry animal a dog for example words are extended to other things incorrectly not imitation

Question 33

what is overextension

Answer 33

this is where kids will label every furry animal a dog for example words are extended to other things incorrectly not imitation

Question 34

what can learning theory not explain

Answer 34

overextension of words learning complex words speed of learning words

Question 35

what is telegraphic speech

Answer 35

kids master word order but not morphological rules | e.g. get truck

Question 36

what is over-regulation

Answer 36

kids say irregular words i felled, i falled kids learn grammatical patterns first, then irregularities kids dont learn solely through imitation

Question 37

what is sensorimotor period birth-2 years

Answer 37

sensory input motor movement object permanence

Question 38

what is object permanence

Answer 38

- kids think create things in the world by reaching them - incorrectly think things no longer exist when they are hidden - mismatch between vision and motor movement

Question 39

neonatal imitation

Answer 39

infants 8-12 months lack ability to engage in imitation | facial imitation is particularly difficult

Question 40

why is piaget's estimate half off with the giraffe experiment

Answer 40

because kids at 4 months old know the giraffe should be there

Question 41

what is the pre-operational stage (2-7 years) characterised by

Answer 41

egocentrism, theory of mind, centration, irreversibility

Question 42

whats irreversibility

Answer 42

kids think that things cannot go back to original form e.g playdough

Question 43

what is egocentricism

Answer 43

kids cant take the perspective of others

Question 44

what is the symbolic function substage

Answer 44

kids will use language and pretend to draw representations of things e.g. hold banana as phone

Question 45

what is theory of mind

Answer 45

kids think people know what they know

Question 46

what is the concrete operational period (7-11 years)

Answer 46

mastery of conversation | can think about 2 things

Question 47

what is conservation and which stage does it occur

Answer 47

occurs in concrete operational period if kids have concrete operations, they should know the water in the tube is the same as other tubes which differ in width or height

Question 48

what is the formal operational period (11yrs-adulthood) characterised by

Answer 48

logic is more robust can think about future can think about abstract ideas, logical systematic thinking this is not necessarily demonstrated in all areas in adulthood and varies across people

Question 49

what is deductive reasoning

Answer 49

going from broad to specific | example of bears in snow

Question 50

what is inductive reasoning

Answer 50

going from specific to drawing broad conclusions | piaget suggested it emerges in concrete operations and is established in formal operations

Question 51

inductive reasoning experiment- coloured balls

Answer 51

woman pulls out 4 red balls, 1 white infants then either see the woman pull out 1. more red balls than white 2. more white balls at 8 months, kids look longer, gathering more info as they are confused Piaget's systematic thinking starting in stage 4 might begin earlier

Question 52

what is fluid intelligence characterised by

Answer 52

ability to think and act quickly respond to novel problems encode short term memories

Question 53

which intelligence is marked by acculturation and education

Answer 53

crystallised

Question 54

what is crystallised intelligence

Answer 54

tests knowledge of general info | personality factors, education, motivation and cultural opportunity central its development

Question 55

problem-focused action

Answer 55

obtain more info on how to do correctly

Question 56

cognitive problem analysis

Answer 56

try to figure out on your own what you did wrong

Question 57

passive-dependent behaviour

Answer 57

ask someone else to do it for you

Question 58

avoidant thinking and denial

Answer 58

move blame onto others or things

Question 59

what is post formal thought marked by

Answer 59

``` being: flexible open-minded adaptive individualistic ``` you can handle: inconsistency compromise imperfection

Question 60

wisdom and age

Answer 60

dont go together rather reflects life experiences

Question 61

wisdom in Japanese vs americans

Answer 61

japanese use wise reasoning younger and dont change across lifespan. use both interpersonal and intergroup americans develop wisdom through conflict across age and use more intergroup than interpersonal conflict neither way is better, they way we learn about wisdom vary with culture

Question 62

wisdom is marked by:

Answer 62

acknowledging other people's point of view appreciation of looking at things more broadly sensitive to possibility of change in social relations preference for compromise and conflict resolution

Question 63

Why makes an emotion?

Answer 63

Expressions Physiological Coping behaviours Cognitions