Chpt 7: LTM Encoding (PSY311)

Question 1

Def: maintenance rehearsal

Answer 1

Maintenance rehearsal: repeating to be remembered info over and over again like when you repeat a phone number in order to remember it.

Question 2

Def: elaborative rehearsal

Answer 2

Elaborative rehearsal: connecting to be learned info to something meaningful to you.

Question 3

Success of __________ depends on the ________ of processing.

Answer 3

encoding, depth

Question 4

Levels of processing theory was made by whom?

Answer 4

Lockhart

Question 5

Def: shallow processing

Answer 5

Shallow processing: based on surface level features (size of font, letter case, individual letters/numbers)

Question 6

Def: deep processing

Answer 6

Deep processing: based on the meaning of the info & its relationship to other info (connecting a newly learned name to something you associate with that person).

Question 7

Craik & Tulving (‘75) experiment on shallow & deeper processing

Answer 7

Participants were asked to 1 or 3 possible questions:
Is the word printed in cap letters
Does the word rhyme with this?
Would the word fit into this sentence?
Participants were later given a memory test of the words they saw.
Participants had better memory as the depth of processing increased
It’s easier to encode info if we can connect it to our activated network of already known info

Question 8

Def: paired-associate learning

Answer 8

Paired-associate learning: a list of words of pairs are presented. Later, shown the 1st word & asked to recall the 2nd.

Question 9

Bower & Winzenz experiment

Answer 9

Bower & Winzenz (‘70) found that memory was better when participants were asked to imagine the 2 items visually
More feature/meaning based!
How might a boat interact with a tree?
were to think abt the features of each.

Question 10

Connecting words or newly learning info to yourself makes it ________ to remember than otherwise and we know ourselves well.

Answer 10

easier

Question 11

Leshikar & Co demonstration on the self-reference effect.

Answer 11

Has participants in the study phase of their experiment looking at a series of adjectives presented on a screen for 3secs per word.
2 conditions, the self condition, in which participants indicated whether the adjective described themselves, and the common condition in which participants indicated whether the word was commonly used.
They had to remember previous words.
The memory was better for the self condition than the common condition

Question 12

Def: generation effect

Answer 12

Generation effect: Info that we produce, or generate, instead of just receiving, is better learned

Question 13

Slameka & Graf demonstration on the generation effect

Answer 13

Had participants study a list of word paris in 2 diff ways:
Read group: read these pairs of related words.
Generative group: fill in the blank with the word that is related to the first word.
Participants were then presented with the first word in each pair & were told to indicate the word that went with it.
Participants who had generated the 2nd word in each pair were able to reproduce 28% more word pairs than participants who had just read the word pairs

Question 14

We are forced to _________ our prior knowledge to generate the pair, __________ processing!

Answer 14

activate, deeper

Question 15

Bower & Co experiment

Answer 15

Organized words according to categories.
One group of participants studied 4 separate trees for minerals, animals, clothing, and transportation for a minute each and were then asked to recall as many words as they could from all 4 trees.
During the recall test, participants tended to organize their responses in the same way the trees were organized, first saying minerals then metals and common etc.
Participants in this group recalled an average of 73 words from all 4 trees.
Another group also saw 4 trees, but the words were random, so that each tree had random words.

Question 16

Bower & Co experiment results

Answer 16

These participants were able to remember only 21 words from all 4 trees.
Organizing material to be remembered results in substantially better recall

Question 17

Bransford & Johnson experiment

Answer 17

Bransford & Johnson asked participants to read a passage.
The participants not only found it difficult to picture what was going on, but they also found it extremely difficult to remember this passage.
Participants who saw the picture before they read the passage remembered twice as much from the passage as participants who didn’t see the pic or participants who saw the pic after they read the passage

Question 18

Pictures provide a mental _________ that helps the reader _____ one sentence to the next to create a meaningful story.

Answer 18

framework, link

Question 19

Retrieval cues help us ________ info we’ve already stored in LTM.

Answer 19

remember

Question 20

It’s easier to remember info when we understand the ________ for its meaning.

Answer 20

context

Question 21

What did Nairne suggest?

Answer 21

Nairne proposes that we can understand how memory works by considering its function, bc thru the process of evolution, memory was shaped to increase the ability to survive, especially in situations experienced by our ancestors, who were faced with basic survival challenges like finding food & evading predators.

Question 22

Nairne’s experiment

Answer 22

Had participants imagine tha they were stranded on a grassland of a foreign country without any basic survival materials.
They were presented with a list of words.
Their task was to rate each word based on how relevant it would be before finding supplies of food & water & providing protection from predators.
Participants were later given a surprise memory test that showed that carrying out this survival tasks resulted in better memory than other elaborate encoding procedures we have described.
Concluded that survival processing is a powerful tool for encoding items into memory.

Question 23

The 2 most important studying strategies:

Answer 23

Elaborate
Testing

Question 24

Def: elaborate (retrieval)

Answer 24

Elaborate: think about what the material means, process it deeply based solely on its meaning.

Question 25

Def: testing (retrieval)

Answer 25

Testing: when studying, don’t just reread it! You gotta gest yourself too by making notecards and forcing yourself to generate the info when recalling.

Question 26

Karpicke & Roediger experiment on the retrieval practice effect

Answer 26

Participants studied a list of 40 Swahili-English word paris and then saw one of the words in each pair and were asked to remember the other word. All 3 groups studied all of the paris and then were tested on all of the paris. When tested, they recalled some pairs and didn't recall others. In the second phase of the experiment, the 3 groups had different study and test experiences. Group 1 continued the first procedure. They studied all pairs and were tested on all parts until their performance reached 100%. Group 2 had the study test sequence changed. Once a pair was recalled correctly in a test, it was no longer studied in next study sessions. But, all all for the pairs are tested during each test secession until performance reached 100% Group 3 the test part of the study test sequence was changed. Once a pair was recalled correctly, it was no longer tested during the next sessions. This group was therefore tested on less of the pairs as the experiment progressed.

Question 27

Results of the Karpicke & Roediger experiment on the retrieval practice effect

Answer 27

A week later groups 1 and 2 recalled 81% of the pairs but group 3 only recalled 36%. Shows that being tested is important for learning bc when testing was stopped for the last group, their performance decreased. 2nd group shows that the cessation of studying doesn’t affect performance.

Question 28

Def: testing effect

Answer 28

Testing effect: enhanced performance due to retrieval practice/tests.

Question 29

Def: encoding specificity

Answer 29

Encoding specificity: we encode info along with its context (the environment we are in when we learn it).

Question 30

Def: state-dependent learning

Answer 30

State-dependent learning: our internal context matters too bc our internal state (mood) is also encoded when we’re learning.

Question 31

We can _________ our memory ______ it gets encoded by trying to retrieve it.

Answer 31

strengthen, after

Question 32

Research has shown that students who read a text with the idea of making up __________ did as well on an exam as students who read the text with the idea of answering questions later, and both groups did _________ than a group of students who didn’t create or answer questions.

Answer 32

questions, better

Question 33

Research also shows that many studies believe that __________ the material is more effective than testing themselves on it, but when they do test themselves, it’s usually to determine what they are doing, not as a tool to increase learning.

Answer 33

reviewing

Question 34

Def: spreading activation

Answer 34

Spreading activation: what leads to priming. Info a couple links/nodes away becomes activated & more easily accessed with later cues.

Question 35

Organization helps _________ the burden on your memory.

Answer 35

reduce

Question 36

Grouping small elements into larger, more meaningful ones __________ memory.

Answer 36

increases

Question 37

Research has shown that memory is better when studying is broken into a number of short ________, with breaks in between, than one block.

Answer 37

sessions

Question 38

_________ causes the reading to become easier and easier. But this enhanced ease of reading creates this _______ that the material is being learned, increasing fluency doesn't necessarily translate into better memory for the material.

Answer 38

Repetition, illusion

Question 39

Peterson's survey

Answer 39

82% of students highlight study material, and most of them do so while they are reading the material for the first time. The issue with this is with highlighting seems like elaborate processing it becomes automatic behavior that involves moving the hand, but with little deep thinking abt the material itself. When comparing comprehension for a group of students who highlighted and a group who didn't she found no diff between the performance of th 2 when they are tested on the material

Question 40

Just writing what the professor is saying into your notes ______ a good way to take good notes and it works ________ learning.

Answer 40

isn’t, against

Question 41

What did Putnam & Co suggest with Laptop notes vs. handwritten ones

Answer 41

The suggestions by Putnam & co was that you should leave your laptop at home to avoid the distraction of the internet and social media and to write your notes instead of typing bc handwriting encourages more reflective, deeper processing.

Question 42

What should you do from now on?

Answer 42

Write these notes in your OWN words!!!!!!!

Question 43

Explain the paper written by Putnam & Co

Answer 43

The Putnam and co paper has a summary on conclusions abt studying based on their research, and a paper by Kunlosky and Co that provides more in depth discussions, which ends by concluding that practice testing and distributed practice are really effective study techniques.

Question 44

Def: free recall

Answer 44

Free recall has a participant recall various stimuli.

Question 45

Def: cued recall

Answer 45

Cued recall is when the participant is shown retrieval cues to help them recall experiences they’ve experienced in the past.

Question 46

Why is the Tulving & Pearlstone experiment important?

Answer 46

The Tulving & Pearlstone experiment is important bc it demonstrated how retrieval cues help our memory.

Question 47

Mantyla’s experiment

Answer 47

Participants had a list of several nouns. They were told to write 3 words that have something to do with each noun. The words were 3 self generated retrieval cues and the other were other renerated retrieval cues from other participants. The goal is to remember the noun they had seen during the study. The results indicate that when the self generated retrieval cues were shown, they remembered 91% of them but when the other person generated retrieval cues, they only remembered 55% of them

Question 48

3 situations in which retrieval is increased by matching the conditions at retrieval to conditions at encoding:

Answer 48

encoding specificity State-dependent learning Transfer-appropriate processing

Question 49

Def: Transfer-appropriate processing

Answer 49

Transfer-appropriate processing: matching the task with encoding & retrieval

Question 50

Godden & Baddeley’s Diving Experiment

Answer 50

One group of participants studied a list of wods while underwater, and another group studied the words normally. After that, they were divided so that half were on land and the water groups were tested to recall on land. The numbers show that the best recall occurred when encoding and retrieval happened at the same location.

Question 51

Grant & Co experiment

Answer 51

Participants read an article while wearing headphones. The other group of participants read in silence. Each group was given a short answer test on what they read under the opposite condition as before. The results showed that they did better when the testing condition matched their study condition

Question 52

Metcalf & Eich demonstration

Answer 52

They demonstrated that memory is better when one’s mood during retrieval is the same mood while encoding. They asked participants to think positive while listening to happy music or depressing thoughts while listening to sad music. They rated their mood while listening to the music, and the encoding portion of the experiment began with their ratings. They then studied a list of words while in their current moods. After that, they had to return after a couple of days (the sad group stayed longer). 2 days later, they had the same procedure and then studied the same words as before. The results show that they did better when their mood at the retrieval was the same as during the encoding.

Question 53

Morris and co experiment

Answer 53

Participants heard a sentence with one word missing and a couple secs later they heard the word. They rated depending on the meaning of the word and the sound. Both groups were told to process the words differently, one focused on the meaning and the other focused on the sound of the words. All participants were shown a list of test words. They were to answer whether or not the rhyme word matched with the target word. The participants’ retrieval performance depended on whether the retrieval task matched the encoding. Participants who had focused on rhyming during encoding remembered more words. This showed better performance when the type of processing matches in encoding & retrieval.

Question 54

__________ processing leads to better _________ and better retrieval.

Answer 54

Deeper, encoding

Question 55

Def: consolidation

Answer 55

Consolidation: the process that transforms new memories from a fragile state, in which they can be disrupted, to a more permanent stage, in which they are stable. The more consolidated a memory is, the more it feels known

Question 56

Def: synaptic consolidation

Answer 56

Synaptic consolidation: changes in the structure of our neurons in response to newly learned info. Happens within minutes/hrs of learning.

Question 57

Def: systems consolidation

Answer 57

Systems consolidation: reorganization of neural circuits in the brain. This takes months/yrs.

Question 58

Every experience creates the ________ for a new memory, new memories are fragile & can therefore be ___________.

Answer 58

potential, disrupted

Question 59

Miller & Pilzecker experiment

Answer 59

Experimented on 2 groups, the immediate group learned one listed & then immediately learned a 2nd. The delay group learned the 1st and then waited a few mins before the 2nd. Recalling, the delay group remembered 48% and the immediate group remembered 28%. Results show that immediately presenting the 2nd interrupts the forming of a stable memory while encoding the 1st list.

Question 60

Synaptic consolidation is _______ and systems consolidation is ___________.

Answer 60

faster, slower

Question 61

Structural changes in neurons involve __________ presences of _____________________ & receptors in the synapse.

Answer 61

increased, neurotransmitters

Question 62

The structural changes lead to more neuronal firing & less stimulation needed to remember the learned info over time. _____________________________________

Answer 62

Called Long term potentiation LTP.

Question 63

What was Hebb's claim?

Answer 63

Hebb claimed that learning and memory are represented in the brian by physiological changes that take place at the synapse. Also proposed that changes occur in hundred or thousands of synapses that are activated around the same time by a specific experience provides a neural record of the experience. Synaptic changes provides a record of experiences became the starting point for modern research on the psychology of memory

Question 64

explain the Standard Model of Consolidation

Answer 64

When we learn something new, our hippocampus acts to direct the learning to areas of the cortex. After though time & reactivation, the learning has consolidated within the cortex alone. The hippocampus isn’t involved anymore.

Question 65

Def: reactivation (cognition)

Answer 65

Reactivation: a process that helps form direct connections between the various cortical areas.

Question 66

The Standard Model of Consolidation was based partially on observations of memory loss caused by what?

Answer 66

trauma &/or injury

Question 67

Def: retrograde amnesia

Answer 67

Retrograde amnesia: amnesia for events before the injury, can extend back minutes, hrs, or even years, depending on the nature of the injury.

Question 68

Def: graded amnesia

Answer 68

Graded amnesia: is most severe for events that happened just before the injury and to become less severe for earlier events.

Question 69

Some disagreement regarding whether the hippocampus is important only at the __________ of consolidation or whether the hippocampus continues to be important even for __________ memories.

Answer 69

beginning, remote

Question 70

Explain the Multiple Trace Model of Consolidation

Answer 70

When we learn something new, our hippocampus acts to direct the learning to areas of the cortex. Even after enough time & reactivation, our hippocampus is still helping us remember the info

Question 71

Viskontas & Co demonstration on the response of the hippocampus

Answer 71

Participants looked at pairs of stimuli while undergoing fMRI. They were told to imagine the items in each pair interacting with each other. After time has passed, the words change The results show that the remember responses than know (semantic) after 10min but that only half of the remember responses remained after a week. Determined that the hippocampus response for pairs to which participants responded remember both at 10mins and at a week and for pairs to which participants responded remember at 10mins but know after a week. Hippocampus response remained high for RR pairs but dropped near zero for RK pairs. This supports the idea that the hippocampus response changes over time. Viskontas found that hippocampus responding is connected with episodic memories, which are still there after a week

Question 72

Research has shown that learning followed by _______ leads to ________ memory for what was learned.

Answer 72

sleep, better

Question 73

Gais & co experiment

Answer 73

The sleep group studied the words and then went to sleep. The awake group studied the swords and then remained awake for up to 10hrs before going to sleep. Both groups were tested 1-2 days after sleep. The sleep group forgot much less material than studies in the awake group.

Question 74

_____________ appears to be _________ during sleep.

Answer 74

Consolidation, enhanced

Question 75

Wilhelm & co experiment

Answer 75

Participants learned a task and wer then told either that they would be tested on the task later or that they would be tested on a diff task. After a night’s sleep, they were tested on the task to determine if what they expected had any effect on consolidation. Participants saw each card pair twice and then learned the location by practicing. After practicing, they answered 60% correctly. Memory for the task was stronger if participants expected they would be tested.

Question 76

The possibility that retrieved memory can become fragile was demonstrated in a rat experiment by whom?

Answer 76

Nader & co.

Question 77

Nader & Co famous rat experiment on memory

Answer 77

Created a fear response in the rat of not moving to presentation of a tone. This was achieved by parking the tone with a shock. Initially had no response, pairing it with the shock caused the tone to take on properties of the shock so the rat froze in place then the tone was presented alone. Was also injected with anisomycin (antibiotic that inhibits protein synthesis & prevents changes at the synapse that are responsement to the formation of new memories). The key is when the anisomycin is injected, if it's injected before consolidation has occurred, it eliminates memory, but if not, it has no effect after consolidation. Condition 1, the rate relieving the pairing of the tone and the shock on the first day. Considion 2, the rat receives the anisomycin the tone and shock on the first day, but doesn’t receive anisomycin until the 2nd day after consolidation. Condition 3, a situation of injecting the drugs on day 2 can eliminate the memory of the tone shock pairing. The results show that when a memory is reactivated, it becomes fragile, just as it was immediately after it was 1st formed, and the drug can prevent reconsolidation

Question 78

Hupbach & Co experiment

Answer 78

Evidence for the effect of reactivation in humans using the following 2 groups of reminder and the no reminder groups. The reminder group was shown 20 objects one at a time. Then we were asked to name each object and pay close attention to reemmer each. Were asked to recall as many as they can. They remembered 17 of them. A couple days later, they wer told to recall the procedure. A new list of 20 objects were shown. A few more days later, they were asked to recall as many of the objects from the first list as possible. They remembered 36% of the first and 24% of the second.

Question 79

Brunet & Co experiment

Answer 79

Testing the idea of reactivation of a memory followed by reconsideration can help alleviate symptoms of PTSD. Presented propranolol that blocks activation of cortisol in the amygdala. 2 groups: one with PTSD listened to a 30sc recording of circumstances of their experience and received propranolol. The other group listened to the recording describing their experience but with a placebo. After a week, they were told to imagine their experience while again listening to the recording. Brunet measured their blood pressure and skin conductance. Found that the propranolol group experienced much smaller increases in heart rat & skin conductance than the placebo group.

Question 80

When given his list of tasks for the day, Bernard never forgets to do anything, as long as he visually imagined himself doing the tasks. This is because, instead of just listing the tasks, Bernard has to access the _______ of the tasks, accessing their deeper meaning, if he wants to visualize them. A) Features B) Spelling C) Sound D) Paired words

Answer 80

A

Question 81

Priming tells us that sometimes information can become activated and more easily accessible to us without our explicit knowledge. This is ultimately due to a process called A) Spreading activation B) Encoding specificity C) Perspective convergence D) Generation Effect

Answer 81

A

Question 82

New learning is stored as structural changes in our neurons. Over time these changes make it easier to "remember" new information, as it requires less stimulation to access the information. This is a process called ________. A) LTP B) Classical Conditioning C) Operant Conditioning D) Multiple Trace Model of Consolidation

Answer 82

A

Question 83

Sassy has learned her friend, Chance's birthday. In order to try to remember his birthday, she repeats it over and over in her head. Which, slightly inefficient, process is Sassy using? A) Maintenance Rehearsal B) Elaborative Rehearsal C) Repetition Rehearsal D) Birthday rehearsal

Answer 83

A

Question 84

When Susan studies, she using practice testing. When she is testing herself, she using fill in the blank questions, so that she has to create the answer from her memory. This type of studying leads to better learning compared to just rereading or listening to lectures again because of the ___________. A) Testing Effect B) Fill in the blank effect C) Categorization effect D) Creation Effect

Answer 84

A