Cognitive psychology Flashcards

Question

What is object segmentation?

Answer 1

visually assigning the elements of a scene to separate objects and backgrounds.

Answer 2

Don't know which side of boundary belongs to background and the other to figure - vase or people kissing picture Characteristics - figure is part of foreground - background continues behind figure - contour belong to figure

Answer 3

Rule of enclosure: if one region iscompletely surrounded by other, surrounded region seen as figure Rule of symmetry: one region that is more symmetrical, be perceived as figure Rule of convexity: convex side be perceived as figure before concave sixe

Answer 4

refers to the fact that our views of objects are often partially blocked by other objects - our brain fills in the gap

Answer 5

where people tend to remember pictures as having extended beyond their edges, as if their minds fill in a little bit of what the scene would have looked like had it not been cut off at its border

Answer 6

we live in a three-dimensional (3-D) world, but the input to our eyes is two-dimensional (2-D).

Answer 7

Close something is to you, the greater the difference between what your two eyes see

Answer 8

Linear perspective: the way parallel lines appear to move closer together and converge on single point as they recede into distance texture gradient: textural elements that are presumably of similar size appear to get smaller and more densely packed as they recede into the distance

Answer 9

recognizing objects despite their orientation.

Answer 10

the perceived sizes of object are remarkably stable despite radical differences in their image size on the retina.

Answer 11

Early: objects basic feature, ie orientation, color and motion late: recognize objects, faces and scenes

Answer 12

Agnosia: inability to recognize objects apperceptive agnosia: individual have impaired early vision, cannot copy images Associate agnosia: early vision intact but inability to name objects (aka cannot recognize shit)

Answer 13

Match images to representations that are like a template - a representation that fully describes the shape of an object - good for simple and standardized images, harder to explain natural images where we view objects at multiple angles

Answer 14

Models that represent objects as sets of 3d parts standing in spatial to each other, geons.

Answer 15

Ventral cortex/Inferior temporal cortex

Answer 16

Posterior parietal cortex

Answer 17

Perception pathway: To determine what is located where Action pathway: use perceptual information to guide ongoing action -patient with agnosia who could not determine orientation of slot but could still put card into slot perfectly

Answer 18

act of forming a percept in mind without sensory input

Answer 19

Unable to engage in mental imagery

Answer 20

Brain represents mental images like it represents real images coming through the eyes - mental imagery like perception, mental scanning: process of mentally moving from one pt in an image to another

Answer 21

Mental images are held in a post-perceptual, abstract way, more like a linguistic description than a picture - simply "simulating" perception, not using visual imagery, imagery as epiphenomenon - smth that occurs tgt with a process of interest but is not central for its function

Answer 22

who cannot visually attend to objects on one side of their visual fields - left-neglect individuals will be able to describe aspects of the scene on the right-hand side only

Answer 23

family of cognitive mechanisms that combine to help us select, modulate, and sustain focus on information that might be most relevant for behaviour

Answer 24

how we attend outwardly or select and modulate sensory information

Answer 25

eye movements

Answer 26

spatial attention by moving the eyes

Answer 27

spatial attention without moving eyes

Answer 28

concentrating on certain stimuli and ignoring others in an environmnet

Answer 29

Effort to select goal-relevant information

Answer 30

Attending to particular stimulus because it has seized your attention

Answer 31

ability to attend to region in a space - like a spotlight illuminating and raising the profile of whatever falls within its focus

Answer 32

When you are cued when the target is coming from -> you are faster and more accurate when cued

Answer 33

engages voluntary attention and can appear in btw. the potential target locations and indicate symbolically where the target is likely to appear

Answer 34

Engages reflexive attention and can appear at one of the target location instead in between them

Answer 35

Yes, both can either correctly or incorrectly indicate target location -> valid cue lead to faster response vs invalid is slower

Answer 36

when attention is briefly inhibited from returning from that spot - helps you avoid checking the same place over and over again

Answer 37

the ability to attend to or filter out information based on features like color, shape or motion

Answer 38

Feature based attention appear to increase activity in neural regions sensitive to the target feature across visual field -> neurons sensitive to feature heighten while neurons that are not sensitive suppress sensitivity

Answer 39

our ability to pay attention to points in time

Answer 40

An effect in which the second of two targets in rapid succession of items is more difficult to detect than the first

Answer 41

selective attention to an object rather than to a point in space

Answer 42

which they fail to process stimuli that fall within their left visual field

Answer 43

stimuli in a cluttered visual environment compete with each other to drive the responses of neurons in the visual system

Answer 44

Bottom up: salience of physical feature Top down: items that are goal relevant

Answer 45

Processing the meaning everything around us before we select what will gain entry to heightened awareness

Answer 46

we attentionally select stimuli on the basis of physical features such as color, pitch or location and we register meaning only after we have selected them

Answer 47

we process information before attentionally selecting it

Answer 48

we take in stimuli quickly and all at once - this is assuming preattentive processing

Answer 49

items get attentionally selected - more slowly one bit of at a time

Answer 50

participants look for a target embedded in an array of nontargets

Answer 51

During preattentive processing, we exprience the world as a jumble of simple features that are not bound together into cohesive objects - we see splashes of color and general shape

Answer 52

which participants listen to two different messages played simultaneously over headphones - led to Broadbent filter model of attention, where you hear both and then you filter out what you don't need - an early selection

Answer 53

Input (attended + unattended) -> selective filter; filter out unattended message -> higher level processing (detector) -> working memory

Answer 54

Input (attended + unattended) -> attenuator; filters physical properties -> dictionary unit, unattended msg still passed but weakly -> both go into working memory - meaningful information needs to meet a lower threshold of processing in order to reach awareness.

Answer 55

The extent to which you process task irrelevant stimuli (attentional capture) depends on the perceptual load

Answer 56

If the attended task is very demanding (“high load”), then attentional resources will largely be occupied, with few spare attentional resources for processing of unattended information. In this case, “unattended” information will be filtered out at an early stage of processing and will neither reach awareness nor interfere with the attended task.

Answer 57

Best under perceptual load and worst under working memory load

Answer 58

load is high because a task taxes working memory, this is known as working memory load and processing of nontarget information appears to increase

Answer 59

attention can change the way we perceive a stimulus

Answer 60

can enable us to better respond to stimuli before they appear

Answer 61

Congruent/compatible

Answer 62

Incongruent/incompatible

Answer 63

In general for response time, High load > Low Load + Incongruent > congruent in both loads Difference btw incongruent and congruent in low load is much larger than the difference in high load -> the difference for high load is so small, there is almost no distraction Response time ranking from Highest: High load, incongruent > High load, congruent > Low load, incongruent > Low load, congruent

Answer 64

one each trial -> participant were asked to determine which Gabor patch had highest contrast btw. dark and light stripes and whether patch titled to right or left -> when cue flashed in middle of two patches aka no bias -> participants showed no bias in reporting the tilt of one over the other BUT when cue flashed at one of the patches -> that patch perceived as higher contrast and bias to report tilt of patch at flashed location Spatial attention modulated how people perceived the visual qualities of a stimulus

Answer 65

a phenomenon in which people fail to notice an unexpected item right in front of their eyes when their attention is preoccupied - inattentional blindness is influenced by our expectations: if you expected a gorilla, you probably saw the gorilla, but you might still have missed the player who left the game or the changing color of the curtain

Answer 66

the failure to notice large changes from one view to the next, and it reflects another, related failure of awareness in the absence of attention

Answer 67

inattentional blindness refers to a failure to notice a stimulus at all, evidence suggests that change blindness can sometimes occur not because people fail to notice a stimulus, but because people fail to compare two views of a stimulus in memory.

Answer 68

the one where people have difficulty reporting the second target if it appears too soon after the first target -> attention may need a "resetting period"

Answer 69

Explicit: conscious awareness Implicit: rely on nonconscious measures such as response time or eye movements

Answer 70

focuses on understanding the kinds of stimuli that can draw our attention reflexively

Answer 71

our tendency to direct attention to some types of stimuli over others

Answer 72

They could not find the landscape when the target appeared within about a half-second after a task-irrelevant emotional picture, even though they were looking right at it

Answer 73

Positive emotions broaden scope of attention (attentional widening), perception, cognition and actions In contrast, this account suggests that negative emotions such as anxiety narrow the range of information people are inclined to consider, which might serve an adaptive function by making it easier for people to take efficient action.

Answer 74

The ability to orchestrate thought and action in accordance with internal goals Proactive control: In anticipation of a challenge Reactive control: In response to a challenge

Answer 75

How much the demands of simultaneous tasks compete for the same mental resources

Answer 76

when load is high or when two tasks overlap, and performance suffers as a result ie distracted driving

Answer 77

- Music can enhance your mood and alertness - But: if processing music has too much overlap with what you are studying, it will interfere! - Lyrics vs no lyric

Answer 78

- Not for automatic processes - For controlled processes ->There are hardly any tasks where you really do not need cognitive control Even for the most automatic processes, you still need a bit of control to get started, to inhibit other tasks, to switch to another task, etc. -> More or less depending on the cognitive load of a task (differences in how much resources are used)

Answer 79

persistent responses that fail to adapt to chaning rules or circumstances - typical of people with prefrontal damage - normal people can pass the delayed-alternation task, pick A -> B->A, will pick up the rule but people with prefrontal damg. will just pick same option

Answer 80

the ability to suppress information, thoughts, or actions that may interfere with ongoing behavior—to tap a brake on mental operations

Answer 81

Classic measure of inhibition, respond quickly to green for go or red to stop - in early stop trial: stop signal appeared early - can inhibit - in late stop trial: stop signal appeared later - people find it more difficult people with good inhibition can respond to late stop better than people with poor inhibition

Answer 82

ability to maintain focus on a task

Answer 83

Dual-task experiment: test whether there is cog. interference - total load being high or from too much overlap *response interference Flanker & Stroop task: interference from automatic response of reading *perceptual interference Flanker task: interference from example spatial proximity *spatial interference simon task: interference from spatial incompatibility

Answer 84

Active when there is interference -> gives off an error response when something goes wrong ("oh shit potential" or error-related negativity) - important for error detection - activate when a prediction error occurs, when you do not receive the reward or outcome you predicted

Answer 85

Substance abuse to severity of OCD - Lower ERN for cocaine addiction = relapse to cocaine addiction - people with OCD has higher ERN

Answer 86

Fundamental bottleneck in information processing -> when R2 is slower than R1

Answer 87

Central bottleneck model: only one response can be selected at a time, so 2nd response is queued Strategic resource sharing: responses to both stimuli can be selected at the same time, but priority is strategically given to the first response, slowing the 2nd response

Answer 88

refers to the speed and accuracy penalty that comes with having to switch tasks - task switch = lower accuracy + speed

Answer 89

Preparation effect: increase time btw target give people mroe time to prepare = less task switch cost cannot completely eliminate - its called residual switch cost - will always have - swtich task need cognitive control -> prefrontal cortex more active for task switch trials than no switch

Answer 90

a brain system that provides temporary storage and manipulation of the information necessary for such complex cognitive task as language comprehension, learning and reasoning (by Alan Baddeley)

Answer 91

Maintains information after it is no longer available in perception - no longer visible, audible or touchable - form of internal attention

Answer 92

Central executive: primary system for controlling attention and thinking - where info is manipulated Phonological loop: stores and rehearses verbal and acoustic info Visuospatial sketchpad: stores and manipulates visual information Episodic buffer: multimodal, it integrates information from multiple internal sources - from phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and long tern memory - into episodic representation

Answer 93

Command centre of working memory - perform all cognitive control ie inhibition, response selection, task switching, decision making and planning ect -directing attention (internal and external) - prefrontal cortex

Answer 94

2 mechanisms: (1) a phonological store that holds sound- or speech-based information for 1 to 2 seconds, (digit span task) and (2) an articulatory rehearsal loop, which occurs through inner speech (uttering things to yourself without vocalizing out loud) - (capacity of 7 plus or minus 2)

Answer 95

Word length effect: working memory capacity for wards or other phonological stimuli depends on the spoken duration or syllable length of the words -around 2 seconds of length - one syllable remb better than 5 syllable Word similarity effect - words codded acoustically - rhyming helps

Answer 96

Irrelevant speech effect: Impairment of working memory by irrelevant spoken material - e.g. nonsense words or foreign language -> interference occurs due to the phonological syllabus themselves not the meaning of it Articulatory suppression: disruption of working memory that occurs when uttering irrelevant sounds. -> only verbal not visual information -> affects phonological store

Answer 97

Retain visual information over time, especially when the perceptual image is no longer available, or has changed, most commonly whenever you move your eyes.

Answer 98

Visual short term memory task - can remember 4 features of either line orientation or colours How about multiple features? - if visual memory based on features, it should breakdown at more than 2, if its object based than should be 4 objects so yes, they could -> visual memory is object based

Answer 99

slot = object, visual short term memory can store all of the obj's features w/o reducing the capacity of other objects, up to 4 objs - 4 chairs and any 4 people can sit on it

Answer 100

Resource model of visual short-term memory: capacity is a limited resources shared by all objects -> so capacity depends on complexity of obj. e.g. 4 chairs can fit 8 children or 4 adults only

Answer 101

Answer both correct. Visual memory constrained by Superior intraparietal sulcus - can hold 4 items then drop, but when complex objs have to be maintained in WM -. performance fail after 2 items, same for superior intraprietal sulcus => sensitive to features or resources like bench seating Inferior intraparital sulcus - show different pattern, increases activity up to 4 objs, regardless of complexity or model = sensitive to objs or slots, like individual chairs

Answer 102

a storage space for the executive controller to combine information from the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad - constructs new representations on the fly - Solves the binding problem

Answer 103

Cognitive control can help with unwanted emotions * Inhibition of unwanted thoughts (like rumination) requires cognitive control Unwanted emotions can hamper cognitive control * Stress and anxiety take up WM capacity! * Rumination does not help performance * Scarcity hypothesis: devote excess attention and resources -> increases cognitive load -> decline in executive functioning

Answer 104

occurs when one’s energy for mental activity is exhausted, impairing cognitive control and other cognitive activities - low glucose levels so dont make decision on empty stomach!

Answer 105

being out in nature can restore cognitive fatigue

Answer 106

family of processes involved in encoding, storing and retrieving information about our experience of the world

Answer 107

information that is stored for a short duration, which fades after several seconds if not actively attended to or transferred to STM

Answer 108

long term storage of information, which can stretch back decades

Answer 109

Memory is falliable - eyewitness misidentifying yet immense, people can memories the whole Iliad by heart

Answer 110

Assigning pieces of information in a room - as a cue

Answer 111

highly detailed but short-lived impression of sensory information - Iconic and echoic memory

Answer 112

Stimulus -> evoke sensory memory -> if you give attention to sensory memory -> becomes STM -> encoding STM leads to LTM while retrieving LTM becomes STM

Answer 113

* Rehearsal (not very effective) * Chunking * Elaboration - Depth of encoding - meaning and function of features (shallow, intermediate, deep) - Self reference - thinking of how it is relevant to you - Self imagining - imagine something in personal perspective * Hierarchical organization - meaningful network of associations * Spacing (distributed vs massed practice) - your remb better if you test over time rather than a single session

Answer 114

Act of accessing memories (not like a computer file) - Distorted! Previous information and experience and expectations influences our stored memory,as well as encoding problems

Answer 115

Testing effect: practice in retrieving information leads to better retention of material than does repeated studying generation effect: memory is enhanced for a list of items a person has generated versus one that a person was simply asked to memorize (writing in your own words_

Answer 116

Rational: objective and logical Irrational: subjective and biased

Answer 117

psychological factors affect our decision making in consistent ways

Answer 118

System 1: decision making that operates quickly System 2: decision making that operates more slowly and more deliberate control

Answer 119

Mental shortcuts we take as part in system 1

Answer 120

how often an event or situation actually occurs

Answer 121

mental shortcut used to estimate the likelihood of an event based on how closely it matches or represents related examples or stereotypes - we suck at stats lmao

Answer 122

the false assumption that a combination of conditions is more likely either condition by itself

Answer 123

Smaller sample size produce more variance - larger size = more valid

Answer 124

the faulty reasoning that past events in a sequence affect the likelihood of future events - events are typically independent from each other

Answer 125

related to gambler's fallacy; perception on being "on a roll" - seeking patterns when none exist/inferring causes to explain random events

Answer 126

people estimate the frequency of an event on how easily examples come to mind

Answer 127

How different starting points (initial values) produce different estimates or decisions

Answer 128

the introduction of a more- or less-expensive item provides an anchor to stimulate the sales of the target item e.g. small, medium and large coffee

Answer 129

You have consciously made decision, but unconscious process helped your reach it

Answer 130

situations where too much information, computation or time devoted to a problem may lead to less accurate, sensible, or satisfying decision

Answer 131

People are presented with two alternatives place higher value on the one they recognize vs the one that is strange or novel

Answer 132

people assign higher value to the option that is recognized first, that is, more quickly and easily - increased fluency, increases the perceived truth or repeated claims or fame of name - stocks that can be pronounced more fluently tend to perform better

Answer 133

base one’s decisions on a single cue

Answer 134

involve a limited set of yes–no questions rather than a larger set of probabilistic one - used in emergency medicine

Answer 135

a heuristic that simply involves counting the number of cues that favor one alternative over another - does not involve weighing of cues according to their importance

Answer 136

Utility: satisfaction that we obtain from choosing an option positive utility: gains negative utility: losses or costs risk: probability of negative outcome

Answer 137

We make decisions by comparing the expected value of our options Expected value = value x probability

Answer 138

Normative theories on rational, logical and mathematical calculations to compare decision options - how decisions should be made in order to max utility and rewards Descriptive theories: how we actually decide, describing beliefs and preferences as they are

Answer 139

the notion that utility is not objective but dependent on the decision maker and context.

Answer 140

people hate losses more than they enjoy equivalent gains, and they tend to prefer a sure gain over risky gains

Answer 141

bias where people react differently to a particular decision depending on how it's presented

Answer 142

Preference for a current state of affairs -People like to avoid transaction cost - choosing a new option requires weighing its gain relative to giving up status quo (loss) -> people are loss averse

Answer 143

Automatically place people into options that have the greatest benefit

Answer 144

tendency to overvalue what one has in hand = overvalue your possessions

Answer 145

greater tendency to continue an endeavor once an investment in money, effort, or time has been made

Answer 146

More impulsive - make riskier decision

Answer 147

shared representations are used for perception, action, and knowledge ie seeing a pen, using a pen and thinking about a pen are supported by shared representations

Answer 148

The mental representations in the brain that correspond to objects or ideas in the world

Answer 149

1. Facilitates communication, to convey ideas to others in an effective manner 2. Permit inference - allow you to generalize from prior experience to understand new objects or event 3. Make better decisions and predictions

Answer 150

A set of characteristic features - based on similarity or resemblance

Answer 151

Items in a category tend to share features

Answer 152

Prototypes: typical or ideal member of that category - typicality effect: how some members of a category are more representative than others - propose that we store an average instance in our mind sentence verification task: people are quicker to affirm examples that are close to a prototype than they are to affirm atypical example

Answer 153

Related to the prototype idea in that it is a family resemblance theory that depends on similarity among items within a category - store all specific examples shown in our mind, when showed new instance, our mind matches it against all stored exemplars

Answer 154

Superordinate: Categories that can have other categories within them (e.g. mammal Basic: named task (e.g. dog) Subordinate: highly specific (e.g. german shepard)

Answer 155

One belief: Hierarchical networks/Semantic network vs Constructionist model/distributed networks

Answer 156

Hierarchical networks that contain nodes (pieces of information) and links (associations) - like a branching tree activation or processing at a node travel across links -> spreading activation the longer the connection/more nodes to be traversed -> more time to answer the question - measured using speed of activation

Answer 157

Models are not stored in single nodes, but are more widely distributed across nodes influencing each other in parallel. Active nodes can spread their activity to other connected nodes with links that have different strengths, also known as connection weights. - connections are either excitatory or inhibitory

Answer 158

Concepts are grounded in actions and perception. - meaning of word and objs are stored in sensory and motor system Cortical activations for the naming of people, tools, and animals, similar to those areas damaged in patients. Naming pictures of animals activates regions important for processing perceptual features, while naming tools activates brain regions involved in action

Answer 159

ability to reason, solve problems, and gain new knowledge.

Answer 160

first iq test - gave us the term intelligence quotient - (mental age/ chronological age) * 100

Answer 161

general intelligence (g) and specific intelligence (s)

Answer 162

Divided g into crystallized intelligence (Gc) and fluid intelligence (Gf). Crystallized: people knowledge fluid: adaptability

Answer 163

Raven's progressive matrices: those patterns problems and you pick the correction option out of 8

Answer 164

Working memory correlated with fluid intelligence, reasoning ability, comprehension and IQ

Answer 165

Core knowledge theory: people are born equipped to learn specific types of information such as language, physics, numbers, and psychology

Answer 166

Infants are blank canvas -> knowledge acquired by forming associations through experience

Answer 167

refers to the extent that genetics can explain variation (differences) among people Heritability coeff: variance due to genes/total variance -more that variations in intelligence can be attributed to genes, the closer the IQs of close relatives should be

Answer 168

Sensorimotor period: birth to 2 years Preoperational period: 2 to 7 years Concrete operational period: 7 to 12 years Formal operational period: 12 years and beyond

Answer 169

Structured, creative human communication system that uses spoken, written or gestured symbols to convey referential meaning

Answer 170

1. Language is communicative 2. Language is referential (refers to things and ideas) and meaningful 3. Language is structured (grammar) 4. Language is creative/generative (infinite amount of sentences can be form) and recursion (never ends)

Answer 171

Syntax is grammar and semantics is meaning e.g. "colorless green ideas sleep furiously"

Answer 172

Library of works we use and their links to real-world representations are known collectively

Answer 173

the process of matching word form (phonologically (via sound) or orthographically (via their written form) ) to an entry in the lexicon

Answer 174

(a type of acquired dyslexia) - brain damage in previously literate adult leads to difficulties in orthographic processing but not phonological processing -> evidence results specifically from damage to left occipito-temporal cortex - but still there is debate if its resp. soley

Answer 175

word meaning link to each other as if organized like web within the mental lexicon - exposure to one word ("prime" word) activates the corresponding node in this web, and activation spreads along the web, activating other words to different degrees depending on the strength of their connections to the prime word

Answer 176

Make rapid judgements about strings of letter that are presented to them Finding: word frequency effect: that people are faster to respond to high freq. words (they have encountered a lot) than to low freq. words

Answer 177

exposure to a word influences a response a response to a subsequent stimulus

Answer 178

Words can be primed not only by preceding items that are semantically related, but also by preceding items that have the same emotinal quality e.g. aging and mental health

Answer 179

Fast mapping: one shot learning Mutual exclusivity assumption: new object = new word Whole object constraint: object refers to whole thing, not just parts Shape bias: look the same. prob the same

Answer 180

Smallest to largest: Phonemes, syllabus, morphemes, words, phrases and sentences

Answer 181

How are phonemes allowed to form a morpheme together? (smallest unit of sound)

Answer 182

How are content and function morphemes allowed to form words together? (forming of words/smallest meaningful unit of language)

Answer 183

How morphemes together form a sentence (rules governing sentence structure)

Answer 184

No! - children learning language (poverty of stimulus) - children don't get consistent +ve nor -ve feedback as behavourism is reliant on reinforcement - also children often uses overgeneralisation ie "Hitted" -> no one is saying that, so where did they learn it from?

Answer 185

Every human language has rules for transforming mental representations into structured expressions - Transformational grammar Every human is born with the innate predisposition to learn language - Language acquisition device - Modular, does not depend on other cognitive abilities - Critical period (to learn)

Answer 186

E.g. "The dog bit the man", "The man was bitten by the dog" Both sentence hv deep structure: same meaning but different surface structure (way the representation is structured linguistically)

Answer 187

Genie: 13 year old girl that lived in total isolation with no interaction but couldn't master the language Ofc you can learn and become fluent it just take time

Answer 188

When people start combing language - pidgin like i speak chinese and english and then the next generation have a creole language - like they have a whole structure, rules for that language ie Singlish

Answer 189

Markov models - transitional probabilities between states - we are really good at statistical learning - finite state grammar - Large language model: do they behave like humans? - Chomsky opinion: statistical language plagiarism Usage-based linguists - language as a network of information - learned and shaped by general cognitive processes and social behavior like using working memory, social information for the function of communication

Answer 190

Left hemisphere, in the inferior frontal gyrus - speech production and syntax - but with new evidence: damage to broca lead to both impairment in production and comprehension but only when syntax is crucial

Answer 191

difficulty speaking fluently, producing correct sounds, or finding the right words but can comprehend speech

Answer 192

- left hemisphere, near the juncture of the temporal and parietal lobes - Language comprehension and semantics

Answer 193

condition is characterized by difficulty understanding the meaning of words and sentences

Answer 194

Anomic aphasia: people have difficulty finding the words they want to say Global aphasia: people have great difficulty both producing and comprehending spoken language

Answer 195

Anticipation error - Spoonerism - We activate multiple phonological representations - We active phonology in parallel with syntax and semantics Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon - Shows access to all sorts of partial information about words - Phonological, gender, word length

Answer 196

Speech segmentation: boundaries btw words Parse: ability to determine the boundaries between word - can understand people when talking super fast Phonemic restoration effect: will often "hear" spoken phonemes that have actually been rendered inaudible due to background noise - McGurk effect - where visual messes up audio

Answer 197

sentences that begin by suggesting one interpretation only to present another interpretation with their later parts “The fireman told the man that he had risked his life for to install a smoke detector

Answer 198

The difficulty that experts often have in putting themselves into the shoes of less knowledgeable listener

Answer 199

When you have two participants are seperated by a partition and one other pariticpant describes objects what they are seeing Finding: New yorker describe what they see depending if other participant is new yorker or not

Answer 200

differences among language reflect and contribute to differences in underlying thought processes Strong form: Language shapes perception itself - eg Pirahã don’t have words for numbers, they can perform relatively complex numerical calculations. That said, the Pirahã have been found to have difficulty remembering such calculations, suggesting that language can affect the way we attend to information and encode it into memory Weak form: Language shape scategorization, attention, but not perception itself

Answer 201

The psychological tendency that people diminish the value of future gains the longer they have to wait for them

Answer 202

moving from general knowledge and principle to more specific knowledge and example

Answer 203

Antecedent: P Consequent: Q

Answer 204

A valid form of reasoning in logic that states when statement is accepted and the antecedent (p) holds true, the consequent (q) can be treated as true

Answer 205

A valid form of reasoning in logic that which the consequent (q) of a conditional proposition is denied, thus implying the denial of the antecedent (p).

Answer 206

An invalid form of logic that assumes the inverse of the original statement that the negation of the antecedent (p) implies the negation of the consequent (q). You are a teacher, therefore you have a job. Denial of the antecedent: You are not a teacher, therefore you have no job -> obv. wrong, you might be working something else

Answer 207

An invalid form of logic that states that because the consequent (q) is true, therefore the antecedent (p) is true. E.g. broken lamp cause the room to be dark affirming of consequent: Room is dark because of broken lamp -> not true, there could be no light source at the first place

Answer 208

Using past observations and experiences to make predictions about novel cases

Answer 209

When people generalize properties or features from one exemplar of a category to another

Answer 210

the more similar the premise and conclusion categories, the stronger the inductive argument will be

Answer 211

If the premises are more typical or representative of a category, they will lead to stronger inductions

Answer 212

Properties shared by diverse or dissimilar categories linked by a superordinate category (e.g., the mammal category is superordinate to its subordinate categories lions and goats) are more likely to be generalized than properties shared by similar categories (e.g., lions and leopards)

Answer 213

The larger the number of premises that share a property, the stronger the induction

Answer 214

The ability to understand why something happens, to determine the causes of specific effects

Answer 215

Causation associated with direction

Answer 216

when people make connections between variables that have no relation to each other

Answer 217

involves the human tendency to create possible alternatives to life events that have already occurred; something that is contrary to what actually happened. "If only"

Answer 218

Allows us to estimate the probability of a hypothesis being true based on the evidence at hand and your knowledge of the world

Answer 219

P(H|E) = [P(E|H) x P(H)]/P(E) P(H|E) = posterior probability = probability of hypothesis being true given the evidence P(H) = prior probability = probability of hypothesis being true before any evidence obtained P(E|H) = likelihood = probability that evidence would be observed when the hypothesis is true

Answer 220

When present state does not match the goal state, and it is not immediately obvious how to get from the present state to the goal state

Answer 221

the process of suddenly gaining a solution to a problem

Answer 222

learning how to solve one problem generalizes to solving others - e.g. writing and reasoning helps in other classes that require writing

Answer 223

people find solutions by transferring their knowledge from other problems -> recognize analogies (similarities) between new problem and older problem that they know how to solve e.g. mutilated chess problem to Russian marriage problem

Answer 224

Shortcuts or simple strategies to solve problems

Answer 225

involves randomly selecting and applying different potential solutions until the problem is solved

Answer 226

includes selecting options that move the problem solver a little closer to the end state.

Answer 227

requires being specific about creating goals and, importantly, subgoals to find moves that solve the problem - Reduce the difference between the current state and the goal state

Answer 228

the idea that thinking is shaped by its physical and social context

Answer 229

is the log10 (order of magnitude) of the number of possible states the state space is larger, it will take more effort to find a solution.

Answer 230

is measured with e.g. the remote associates test (RAT) What words relates to these three concepts ? - flake - mobile - cone

Answer 231

measured with e.g. the alternative uses test (AUT). another is called Torrance Test of Creative Thinking - same concept but you write about product improvements or construct pictures How many uses can you think of for this object? - - A brick - A plank of wood -And scored on fluency, originality, flexibility, and elaboration

Answer 232

For particularly creative individuals the less obvious associations are nearly as accessible as the obvious ones (For the RAT)

Answer 233

the tendency for our thinking to be boxed in by predefined uses and associations

Answer 234

The ability to consider what the other party is thinking

Answer 235

- a neuropeptide that is important for pair bonding, maternal care, and sexual behavior -Oxytocin also increased generosity in the ultimatum game

Answer 236

describes a strategy for all players, in which no player has anything to gain by changing their strategy e.g. prisoner's dilemma -> Most rational move is to always defect.

Cognitive psychology Flashcards

(260 cards)