Developmental and Educational Psychology Flashcards
(253 cards)
1
Q
What is perception?
A
Process of organizing and interpreting sensory information about the objects, events and spatial layout of the world around us
2
Q
Is perception objective or subjective?
A
Subjective - requires you to use judgement + our sensory systems differ from each other
3
Q
Do infants have a preference for what to look at?
A
Preferential looking - child looks longer at a screen with smth than blank
- used to measure child’s visual acuity
- Infants are naturally tuned to watch caregiver’s face (environmental cues)
4
Q
What is sensation?
A
processing of basic information from the external world by receptors in the sense organs and the brain
5
Q
What does the preferential looking technique achieve?
A
a. infant is able to discriminate
b. infant has a preference
6
Q
What are infant’s colour perception like?
A
they prefer looking at patterns of high visual contrast – have poor contrast senstivity
7
Q
Why do infants have poor contrast sensitivity?
A
Immature cone cells – newborn cones are spaced 4 times farther apart than adults - catch only 2% of light striking the fovea vs 65% – first month only has 20/120 vision but by 8 months of age –> acuity increases to like an adult + by month 2 infant’s colour vision similar to adults
8
Q
What is smooth pursuit eye movements?
A
Visual behaviour in which the viewer’s gaze shifts at the same rate and angle as a moving object
9
Q
How smooth is a newborn’s visual scanning?
A
newborns scan right away but eye movement is jerky –> cannot track moving stimuli –> only 4 months old, they can track slow-moving objects
10
Q
What is perceptual narrowing?
A
developmental process during which the brain uses environmental experiences to shape perceptual abilitity
- increase ability to discriminate among stimuli of familiar types + decrease ability to discriminate among non familiar stimuli
11
Q
What is perceptual constancy?
A
the perception of objects as being of constant size, shape, colour ect in spite of phsyical difference in retinal image of the object
12
Q
What is object segregation?
A
Perception of the boundaries between objects - things are not mushed together
13
Q
How does culture affect our perception?
A
Western - look at mouth vs asian - look at eye
Western - focus on focal objects in scene vs asian - fixate on actions and background context of the scene
14
Q
What is object permanence?
A
knowing that even though you can’t see it = it still exist
15
Q
What is violation of expectancy?
A
a procedure used to study infant cognition in which are shown an event that should evoke suprise or interest if it goes against something the infant knows
16
Q
What are some possible issues with violation of expectancy procedures?
A
Confounding variables - colour, contrast, aesthetic
17
Q
What is an optical expansion?
A
a depth cue in which an object occludes (obstruct) increasingly more of the background, indicating that the object is approaching
18
Q
What is biocular disparity?
A
the difference between retinal image of an object in each eye that results in two slightly different signals being sent to the brain
19
Q
What is stereopsis?
A
process where visual cortex combines the degree of disparity btw eye’s differing neural signal and produce perception of depth
20
Q
What is auditory localization?
A
perception of the location in space of a sound source
21
Q
How are infant’s hearing ability?
A
auditory system well developed relative to visual -> in first year auditory system matures more significantly
22
Q
How do we localize a sound?
A
rely on difference of sound that arrive at both ears
23
Q
Why do infants struggle with auditory localization?
A
heads are small -> difference in sound is smaller vs toddlers and children + still have a developing auditory spatial map (how sound is organized in physical space) - need of multimodal perception
24
Q
What is intermodal perception?
A
process of combining two or more sensory information
25
What is the McGurk effect?
visual and audio interaction - where our eyes trick what we hear
26
What are reflexes?
fixed pattern of action that occur in response to particular stimulation
27
What are the common neonatal reflexes?
Rooting, Sucking & Swallowing, tonic neck, Moro (startle), grasping, stepping
28
What are the major milestones of motor development in infancy?
0 - 6mnths: prone, lifts head
2 to 4 mnths: prone, chest up, uses arms for support
2 to 4.5 mnths: rolls over
3 to 6 mnths: support some weight with legs
4.5 to 7.5 mnths: sits w/o support
6 to 10 mnths: pulls self to stand
7 to 12.5 mnths: walks using furniture for support
7 to 14 mnths: stands alone easily
11 to 14 mnths: walks alone easily
29
What are affordances?
the possibilities for action offered, or afforded by objects and situations -- small object afford possiblilty to be picked up, steeply slopes do nto afford walking ect
30
What are the 7 types of learning?
1. Habituation
2. Classical conditioning
3. Instrumental conditioning/operant
4. statistical learning
5. Rational learning
6. Active learning
7. Observational learning
31
What is habituation?
the decrease in respones to a stimulus after it has been repeatedly presented
32
What is classical/Pavlovian conditioning?
conditioning in which the conditioned stimulus CS preceds unconditioned stimulus UCS until the conditioned stimulus alone is sufficient to elicit the innate conditioned response CR
33
What is instrumental/operant conditioning?
Learning how you behavour have consequences (If i do this, then that will happen)
34
What is statistical learning?
Learning PATTERNS OF EVENTS through repeated exposure to those patterns
Before learning: no expectations
After learning: expect that one event precedes another (but no transfer of automated response!)
35
What is the goldilocks effect?
Children will not pay attention to events that are either too simple or too difficult because they do not facilitate development
- Infants prefer sound patterns that are not random but also not too predictable
- plays into statistical learning
36
What is observational learning?
Observing and imitating people behaviour BUT infants does not imitate only -- they infer intentions of others and imitate the goal rather than the action
- 10 month old infants understand preference based on effort → if you put in more effort = must be worth more or what is easy is not the same
37
What is rational learning?
ability to use prior experience to predict what will happen in the future/using prior knowledge to judge whether an event was expected or not
38
What is a genome?
the complete set of an organism's genes
39
When comparing genomes of various species what did we discover?
Humans have 20K to 21K protein-coding genes - less than previous estimates
2. Most of those genes are possessed by all living things
3. gens themselves make only abt 1% of human genome - rest of our genome made of non coding DNA
40
What is a genotype?
the genetic material an indvidual inherits
41
What is a phenotype?
the expression of the genotype that is visible and observable - includes both body characteristics and behaviour
42
What is the environment?
every aspect of individuals and their surroundings other than genes
43
What is a gamate?
Reproductive cell e.g. ova/egg cell + sperm
44
What is a zygote?
Fertilized egg cell from female gamate and male gamate
45
What are chromosomes?
long threadlike molecules made of two twisted strangs of DNA (deoxyribronucleic acid) that transmit genetic information
46
What is DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)?
Molecules that carry all the biochemical instructions invovled in the formation and functioning of an organism
47
What are genes?
sections of chromosomes that are basic unit of heredity in all living things
48
What are combination of the sex chromosomes?
Female gets a pair of X chromosomes equal of size, but males get one X chromosome and Ychromosome that is half in size - a male will have to get the x chromosome from father and y chromosome from mother
49
What are the mechanims that contribute to genetic deversity among people?
Random assortment during meiosis (during which gametes are produced)
When chromosomes are aligned → theres is a crossing over (Swap of DNA sections during meiosis) → leads to genetic diversity, this is where mutations can take place
50
How does random assortment of chromosomes/crossing over crossing over affect genetic diversity?
random assortment of chromosomes: durign gamate division - 23 chromosomes are shuffled randomly
crossing over: when gamate divide/process by whcih sections of DNA switch from one chromosome to the other; crossing over promotes variability
51
What is mutation?
a change in the section of DNA
52
What are endophenotypes?
intermediate phenotypes, including the brain and nervous systems, that do not involve overt behavior
53
How does the gene expression affect developmental changes?
Genes impact development if they are turned on: at the right time/ the right position in the body/ the right time period
On/Off -> diversity in gene expression → when one turns off, another turns one → its a network of genes (cascades) ← environment influences on this switching
54
What are regulator genes?
genes that control the activity of other genes - the gene that control the switching on and off of genes
55
How can external factors affect the switching on and off of genes?
e.g. vision: early visual experince needed for normal development of visual system -> causes switching of of certain genes which switch off other genes in visual cortext -> if not -> child has cataracts
56
What factor determines whether a gene is expressed?
Alleles - two or more different forms of genes --> influence the same characteristics e.g. eye colour but contribute to different development outcomes e.g. brown, blue, gray ect
| many of invidual genes are never expressed + some partially expressed
57
What is a dominant allele?
the allele that if present gets expressed
58
what is a recessive allele?
the allel that is not expressed if a dominant allele is present
59
what is homozygous?
having two of the same allele for a trait
60
What is heterozygous?
having two different alleles for a trait - dominant allele will be expressed
61
What is X linked inheritance/diesease?
X chromosome has 1500 genes while Y chromosome has 200. Thus when genetic female inherits a recessive allele on X chromosome from her mother - she likely has dominant alelle on from father to supress it --> will not express it
HOWEVER, if male gets same recessive allele on X chromosome from mother - he does not have dominant allele from father (coz he must get the y chromosome from dad as only males has it) -> so will express recessive trait
62
Does dominant recessive patterns of inheritiance determine all our traits?
No, only a few human traits e.g. hair colour, bloody type, hair and genetic disorder - inheritence patterns are more complicated for most traits and behaviours - the variablity is called polygenic inheritance
63
What is polygenic inheritance?
many different genes contributes to any given phenotypic outcome
64
How does a child's genotype affect a child's phenotype?
A genotype may develop differently in different environments → other expressions of the phenotype
65
What is PKU (phenlketonuria)?
Phenylketonuria (PKU) → homozygous for defect recessive gene of chromosome 12 → unable to metabolise phenylalanine (amino acid in food) → early detection by screening of newborns → treatment (diet and regular blood test) → damage can be avoided
66
How does a child's phenotype affect a child's environment?
active child theme—children as a
source of their own development
67
How does the child's enviornment affect a child's genotype?
Gene expression is not fixed -> a specific gene does not lead to a specific phenotype but instead the genetic encoding of proteins alters the ways in which genes are expressed as phenotypes
68
What is epigentics?
the study of stable changes in gene expression that are mediated by the enviornment - epgientic mech mediated by enviro can alter the functioning of genes and create stable changes in their expression and those changes can be passed down
69
What is gene methylation?
an epigentic mechanism - Methyl molecules bind to DNA → block transcription → no protein production -> reduced level of glucorticoid receptor→ Effects can last long and be passed onto offspring
70
What is behaviour genetics?
the science how variation in behaviour and development results from the combination of genetic and environmental factors
71
What is heritability?
a statistical estimate of the proportion of the measured variance on a trait among individuals in a given population that is attributable to genetic differences among those individuals
| FOR THE POPULATION STUDIED NOT IN GENERAL
72
What are neurons?
cells that are specialized for spending and receiving messages between the brain and all parts of the body as well as within the brain itself
73
What is a cell body?
a component of the neuron that contains the basic biological material that keeps the neuron functioning
74
What are dendrites?
neural fibers that receive input form other cells and conduct it toward the cell body in the form of electrical impulses
75
What are axons?
neural fibers that conduct eletrical signals away from the cell body to connections with other neurons
76
What are synapses?
microscopic junctions betwen the axon terminal of one neuron and dendrite branches or celll body of another
77
What are glial cells? What are the functions of a glial cell?
cells in the brain the provide a variety of critical supportive functions
- guide neurons to final destinations within growing brain (neural stem and progenitor cells during prenatal brain development)
- aid in regeneration of neurons following injury
- support formation of myelin sheats
78
What is a myelin sheath?
a fatty sheath that forms around acons in the body to increase the speed and effiecency of information transmission
79
What is the cerebal cortex?
the "gray matter" of the brain, consisting of four distinct lobes
80
What is the occipital lobe?
major area of the cortex that is primary involed in processing visual information
81
What is temporal lobe?
major area of the cortex that is associated with speech and language, music and emotional information
82
What is parietal lobe?
Major area of the cortex that is associated with spatial processing and sensory information integration
83
What is frontal lobe?
Major area of the cortex that is associated with working memory and cognitibe control
84
What are association areas?
parts of the brain that lie between the major sensory and motor areas and that process and integrate input form those areas
85
What is the cerebal hemispheres?
the two halves of the cortex
86
What is corpus callosum?
a dense tract of nerve fibers that enable the two hemispheres of the brain to communicate
87
What is the cerebal lateralization?
The specialization of the hemisphere of the brain for different modes of processing
88
What is neurogensis?
the proliferation of neurons through cell division - begins 42 days after concepton - roughly 100 bilion neurons
89
What is the arborization?
formation of new dendrite trees and branches
90
What are spines?
formation on dendrites of neurons that increase the dendrite's capacity to form connections with other neurons
91
What is myelination?
formation of the insulating myelin (a fatty sheath) around the axons of neurons that speeds and increase information-processing abilities
92
What is synapogensis?
the process by which neurons form synapes with other neurons, resulting in trillions of connections
93
What is synapse pruning?
The normal developmental process throught which synapses that are rarely activated are eliminated
94
How long does synaptogensis and synaptic prunning last?
ungergoes waves in fist months and years of life + substantial changes during adolescences -> outer layer of cortex shrink faster in adolescence than early childhood or early aduldhood --> only reach adult until 20s and pruning continue until 30s
95
What is plasticity? What are the two kinds of plasticity?
the capacity of the brain to be affected by experience - experience-expectant plasticity & experience-dependent plasticity
96
What is experience-expectant plasticity?
the process through which the normal wiring of the brain occurs in part as a result of species-typical experiences - brain expect that input from reliable experince will be available to fine-tune its circuitry
97
What are the pros and cons of experience expectant plasticity?
Pro: experience help shape brain = fewer genes needed to be dedicated to normal development -> less information needs to pre installed
Con: Heightened vulnerability = if experince that the developing brain expects does not occur e.g. inadequate stimulation or impared sensery receptors -> development compromised (remb. Hubel & Wisel kitten experiment)
98
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What is experince-dependent process?
The process through which neural connections are created and reorganized throughout life as function of an indidual's experiences
99
What is Piaget's theory?
the theory of swiss psychologist Jean Piaget, which posits that cognitive development involves a sequence of 4 stages - the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operation stages - that are constructed through the process of assimilation, acccomodation and equilibration
100
What are the fundematal assumptions of Piaget's theory?
1. Children play an important role in their knowledge → the child as a scientist (constructivist)
2. Children can learn independently
3. Children are intrinsically motivated to learn
101
What is Piaget's view on nature and nuture on children development?
Nuture not just parents - but every experience children encounter + nature also includes children's maturing brain and body, ability to percieve, act and learn experience and tendeny to integrate particular observations into coherent knowledge
102
What are Piaget's view on the continous aspect in child development?
Continuous - assimilation - accomodation and equilibratioin
- Assimilation: the process by which people tanslate incoming information into a form that fits concepts they already understand
- accommodation: the prcoess by which people adapt current knowledge structures in response to new experiences
- Equilibrium: the prcoess by child children (or other people) balance assimilation and accommodation to create stable understanding
103
What is piaget's view on the discountinous aspects of child development?
- Piaget reason that children at certain ages will make certain errors
-Says that children develop in stages in the same order W/O skipping
- Children’s quality of thinking advances with each stage
- Children pass thru transitional period in which they fluctuate btw type of thinking characteristics of new and old
104
What is the sensorimotor stage?
**Sensorimotor (birth-2 yrs)**
Characteristics
- Discover the world through sensory and motor abilities
Basic understanding of fundamental concepts
Live in here and now (no abstract thinking)
**Important challenges**
- Utilize reflexes for interaction with the environment
- Object permanence (8mo)
- A not B error (12mo)
(finds object at location A but see it hidden in location B but still looks for hidden object in A )
- Deferred imitation (18-24 mo)
- ability to learn and remember someone’s behaviour and display that behaviour at a later time
105
What is the preoperational stage?
Preoperational ( 2-7yrs)
**Characteristics**
- Knowledge and experiences are expressed in language
- Understanding of more complex concepts
- Difficulty juggling multiple dimensions → concentration & conversation (same amount of water in different shaped glasses)
**
Important milestones**
- Symbolic representation (3-5yo) - using a broom to pretend its a horse
- Ability to draw
- Discussing with others (decline of egocentrism)
106
What is the concrete operation stage?
Concrete operational stage (7-11 yrs)
**Characteristics **
- Increase in logical awareness → expansion of knowledge about the world
- Ability to handle multiple dimensions at once
- Challenge: Systematic thinking → how to organise a problem/ do it systematically to solve it
107
What is the formal operational stage?
- Ability for abstract thinking and systematic testing of hypotheses
- Thinking about a better world: justice & morality
- Piaget doesn't think this stage is universal
108
What are the criticisim of Piaget's theory?
- Little insight in underlying mechanism
- Used complex tasks - not appropriate for infants
- No attention for influence of social environment
- Overestimation of consistency in children’s development
109
What are core-knowledge theories?
approaches that view children as having some innate knowledge in domains special evolutionary importance and domain-specific learning mechanism for rapidly and effortlessly acquiring additional information in those domains
- Children have innate knowledge that is evolutionary benefits
- Children are active learners
110
What is the difference between of nativism and constructism?
nativism: the theory that infants have innate knowledge knowledge of evolutionary important domains
Four central cores (elizabeth spelke):
- Inanimate objects
- Minds of people and goal-directed actions
- Numbers
- Spatial geometry
Constructivism: learning mechanism are innate, knowledge is acquired through experience
111
What are sociocultural theories?
approaches that emphasize that other people and the surrounding culture contribute greatly to children's development
112
What are the fundemental assumptions of sociocultural theories?
- Cognitive development is shaped by social interactions
Importance of cultural context
- Guided participation (Adult assist e.g. help open tap to wash hand) → social scaffolding (Adult provide temp. Framework for child to do task)
- Intersubjectivity (the shared understanding between two or more individuals about their subjective experiences, thoughts, and feelings) → joint attention
- social scaffolding: a process in which more competent people provide a temporary framework that supprots children's thinking at a higher level than children could manage on their own
113
What is the difference btw Vygtsky's theory and Piaget's theory on children's nature?
- children as social learners vs piaget as children as independent
- children as intent on participating in activities prevalent in specific time and place they live vs piaget children with intent in mastering concepts in all times and places
- gradual continuous change vs piaget: abrupt qualitative changes in children's thinking
114
What is private speech?
the second phase of Vygotsky’s internalization-of-thought process, in which children develop self-regulation and problem-solving abilities by telling themselves aloud what to do, much as their parents did in the first stage
115
According to core-knowledge theorists, children possess naive theories in which three major doamins?
biology, physics and psychology
116
What are concepts?
- knowledge about the kinds of things in the world
- Can be concrete and abstract
- Helps us recognise objects → reduce mental processing load
117
What is perceptual categorization?
the grouping together of objects that have similar apperances
| infants usually group together objects of somewhat similar appearances
118
What are the category hierarchies?
Superordinate level: the general level within cat hier. e.g. animal
basical level: middle level, often first learned, within cat hier. e.g. Dog
subordinate level: the most specific level within cat hier. e.g. poodle
119
How does the cause-effect relation help with the development of understanding?
Wugs and Gilly study: children told why wugs and gillies have physical features were better at classifying and rembering the pictures than children who were only given physical descriptions w/o explanations
120
What is naive psychology?
a commonsense level of understanding of other people and oneself
121
What are the three concepts of naive psychology?
Desire -> Belief -> Action (to explain why someone does something)
122
What is so noteworthy of the 3 properties of naive psychology?
1. Invisible mental state - no one can see belief, desire or other psychologyical concepts
2. Psychological concepts are linked to one antoher in cause-effect relations
3. naive psychology concepts develop suprisingly early in life
123
What is the development of naive psychology theories in infancy?
- Self conscious: knowing what your own body can and cannot do
- Understanding others -> Behaviour has a goal and a purpose (Amanda Woodward (1998) - 6 month olds saw hand repeatedly reaching for one of the 2 objects, infants than suprised when hand reached other object even when position of objects swapped -> infants understood goal of specific object rather than specific location)
124
What is the development of naive psychology beyond the first year?
1. Sense of individuality
2. Increase in joint attention (two or more people focus intentionally on the same referent)
3. Increase in intersubjectivity (mutual understanding that people share communication)
125
What is theory of mind?
- Insight in how people think and behave
- Insights in intentions, belief, desire, perceptions and emotions that can influence behaviour
126
How does a theory of mind grow?
End of first year: understanding of people'e desire and action - Phillips, Wellman and Spelke (2002) - 12 month old shock when experimenter chose kitten B over kitten A despite showing excitement for Kitten A earlier vs 8 month old - kitten chosen does not matter
Age 2yrs:understanding that desire lead to actions is firmly established
Age 3 yrs: Show understanding of relation btw beliefs and actions
127
What are false belief problems?
task that test a child's understanding that other people will act in accord with their own belief when the child knows that those belief are incorrect
128
What is the development of play?
12-18 months
- Pretend play
- Object substitution
2-3 years
- Sociodramatic play: activities in which children enact miniature dramas with other children or adults, such as “mother comforting baby”
6 years
- Sport
- Board games
12-13 yrs
- End of Pretend play
129
Why is sociodramatic play more sophisticated when the playmate is a parent or older sibling?
Young children’s sociodramatic play is typically more sophisticated when playing with a parent or older sibling who can scaffold the play sequence than when they are pretending with a peers --> Such scaffolding during play provides children with opportunities for learning, in particular for improving their storytelling skills
130
What is egocentric spatial representation?
coding of spatial locations relative to one's own body, w/o regard to the surroundings (Piaget found if infants found toy on right side, they will continue to turn right to find it, even if infant was moved when toy is on their left)
131
What are the 5 principles underlying counting?
1. One-one correspondence: each object must be labeled by a single number word
2. Stable order: numbers should always be recited in the same order
3. Cardinality: number of objects in the set correspond to the last number stated
4. Order irrelevance: objects can be counted in any order
5. abstraction: any set of discrete objects or events can be counted
132
What is numeric equality?
the realization that all sets of N objects have something in common e.g. two dogs, two balls, two shoes share property of "twoness"
133
What is essentialism?
the view that living things have an essence inside them that makes them what they are
134
What are emotions?
Neural and physiological responses to the environment, subject feelings, cognition related to those feelings, and the desire to take action
135
What is discrete emotions theory?
a theory in which emotions are viewed as innate, and each emotion has a specific and distinctive set of bodily and facial reactions
- Largely automatic (not cognition based)
136
What is the functionalist perspective of emotions?
a theory which argues that basic function of emotions is to promote action toward achieving a goal. In this view, emotions are not discrete from one another and vary somewhat based on the social environment
137
What are the 6 basic emotions?
Disgust, fear, anger, sadness, happiness, suprise
138
What are social smiles?
smiles that are directed at people, they first emerge around the third month of life
139
What are self conscious emotions?
emotions such as guilt, shame, embarrassment, and pride that relate to our sense of self and our consciousness of other's reactions to us
- Involve self evaluation
- Emerge later than basic emotions, require higher cognitive ability
- Serve higher level social needs; shape social behaviors
140
What is the difference between guilt and shame?
Shame: directed at self, painful, shrinking, worthless
- more likely to self blame, other blame, inter/externalizing problems
Guilt: criticize the behavior, less painful than shame, regret, remorse.
- increased empathy and less inter/externalizing problem
141
What is social referencing?
the use of parent's or another adult's facial expression or vocal cues to decide how to deal with novel, ambiguous, or possibly threatening situations
142
What are emotion display rules?
- Understanding false emotions
- Understand and apply ‘display rules’ to achieve personal goal and accord to social norms
- Stimulating & masking - when you should do it (e.g. social context)
143
What is emotion regulation?
a set of both conscious and unconscious processes used to both monitor and modulate emotional experiences and expression
144
What is a co-regulation?
the process by which a caregiver provides the needed comfort or distraction to help a child reduce his or her distress
145
What are self-comforting behaviors?
repetitive actions that regulate arousal by providing a mildly physical sensation
146
What is self-distraction?
looking away form an upsetting stimulus in order to regulate one's level of arousal
147
What is cognition regulation?
self-directed regulation of cognitions (thoughts, beliefs, affects) toward the attainment of goals.
E.g. “billy teased me, so what? Perhaps he has a crush on me” - cognitive reappraisal
148
What is social competence?
the ability to achieve personal goals in social interactions while simultaneously maintain positive relationships with others
149
What role does family in a child's emotional development
Parental modelling
- More happy expressions in parents relate to higher social competence in children
- More angry expressions in parents relate to more behavioral problems in children
Parent's emotion socialization of their children
the process through which children acquire the values, standards, skills, knowledge, and behaviors that are regarded as appropriate for their present and future roles in their particular culture
Emotional coaching
- use of discussion and other forms of instruction to teach children how to cope with and properly express emotions
150
What is temperament?
individual differences in emotion, activity level, and attention that are exhibited across contexts and that are present from infancy and thus thought to be genetically based (genetically determined + influenced by environment)
151
What is goodness of fit (child temperament)?
the degree to which an individual’s temperament is compatible with the demands and expectations of his or her social environment
152
What is differential susceptibility?
a circumstance in which the same temperament characteristic that puts some children at high risk for negative outcomes when exposed to a harsh home environment also causes them to blossom when their home environment is positive
153
What is emotional intelligence?
the ability to cognitively process information about emotions and to use that information to guide both thought and behavior
154
What is attachment?
an emotional bond with a specific person that is enduring across space and time
155
What is attachment theory?
theory based on John Bowlby's work that posits that children are biologically predisposed to develop attachments to caregivers as a means of increasing the chances of their own survival
156
What is a secure base?
idea that presence of a trusted caregiver provides an infant or toddler- with a sense of security that makes it possible for the child to explore the environment
157
What are the purposes of attachment?
1. Enhance infant's chances of survival by keeping caregiver in close proximity
2. Help child feel emotionally secure - can explore world without fear
3. form of co-regulation - control their arousal and emotions
158
What is an internal working model of attachment?
the child’s mental representation of the self, of attachment figure(s), and of relationships in general that is constructed as a result of experiences with caregivers. The working model guides children’s interactions with caregivers and other people in infancy and at older ages
159
What is the Ainsworth's strange situation procedure?
1. experimenter bring child and caregiver to room with toys and leave (none)
2. Caregiver and child chill (exploration and use of caregiver as secure base)
3. Stranger comes in and play with child + talk to caregiver (reaction to stranger)
4. caregiver leaves + stranger plays (separation distress + reaction to stranger comforting)
5. Caregiver calls for infant from outside and stranger leaves (reaction to reunion with caregiver)
6. Caregiver then leaves (separation distress)
7. stranger comes back (ability to be soothed by stranger)
8. caregiver comes back in (reaction to reunion)
160
What's the secure attachment?
a pattern of attachment in which infants or young children have a positive and trusting relationship with their attachment figure. In the Strange Situation, a securely attached infant may be upset when the caregiver leaves but may be happy to see the caregiver return, recovering quickly from any distress. When children are securely attached, they can use caregivers as a secure base for exploration
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What is the insecure/resistant attachment?
a type of insecure attachment in which infants or young children are clingy and stay close to their caregiver rather than exploring their environment. In the Strange Situation insecure/resistant infants tend to become very upset when the caregiver leaves them alone in the room. When their caregiver returns, they are not easily comforted and both seek comfort and resist efforts by the caregiver to comfort them
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What is the insecure/avoidant attachment?
a type of insecure attachment in which infants or young children seem somewhat indifferent toward their caregiver and may even avoid the caregiver. If the infant gets upset when left alone, he or she is as easily comforted by a stranger as by a parent
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What is disorganized/disoriented attachment?
a type of insecure attachment in which infants or young children have no consistent way of coping with the stress of the Strange Situation. Their behavior is confused or even contradictory, and they often appear dazed or disoriented
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What is parental sensitivity?
care giving behavior that involves the expression of warmth and contingent responsiveness to children, such as when they require assistance or are in distress
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What is a behavioral strategy?
Behavior strategy when someone does something to emotionally regulate themselves
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What is g(general intelligence)?
cognitive processes that influence the ability to think and learn on all intellectual tasks
- sees intelligence as a single trait and we all possess certain amt of g
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What is fluid intelligence?
ability to think on the spot to solve novel problems
- speed of info processing, adaption to task, working memory
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What is crystallized intelligence?
factual knowledge of the world
- long term memory + verbal ability
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What are primary mental abilities?
7 abilities proposed by Thurstone as crucial to intelligence: word fluency, verbal meaning, reasoning, spatial visualization, numbering, rote memory, and perceptual speed
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What is the three-stratum theory of intelligence?
John B. Carroll's model that places g at the top of the intelligence hierachy, 8 moderatly general abilities in the middle (Thurstone's + fluid + crystallized) and many specific processes at the bottom
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What are the 3 view on intelligence?
1. Intelligence is a single trait (g)
2. Intelligence is more than a single trait (crystalized + fluid & Thurstone's)
3. Intelligence is a single trait, few abilities and many processes (John B Carrol)
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What are some critiques about intelligence testing?
1. Measuring a quality as complex and multifacted as intelligence require assessing a much broader range of abilities than assessed by current test
2. Current test are culturally biased
3. reducing some1's intelligence to a number is simplistic and ethically questionable
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What is IQ (intelligence quotient)?
a quantitative measure of a child's intelligence relative to that of other children of the same age
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What is the relationship btw high IQ, income and education
Education predicts income -> ple with high IQ with same education, had higher income
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What are other predictors of success?
1. Self discipline - ability to inhibit actions, follow rules, and avoid impulsive reactions
2. "Practical intelligence" - accurately reading other people's intentions and motivating others to work effectively as a team
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What determines intelligence?
Bronfenbrenner's bioecological model:
1. Child
2. Immediate environment
3. society
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How does the qualities of the child contribute to intelligence?
1. Genes - iq of child correlates with biological parents
2. Child genotype influence its environment - passive effects, evocative effects & active effects
passive: influence due to genetic overlap btw parent and child
evocative: influence child has on environment
active: influences due to child's choices
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How does the immediate environment influence intelligence?
1. Family - higher quality fam enviro = higher iq + parent's genes
2. shared and non shared family environment - birth order, personalities
3. Schools - sch level + quality
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How does society influence intelligence?
Flynn effect - consistent rise in average IQ scores that has occurred over the past 80 years in many countries
- improved nutrition, health, education + accessibility
- fg showed stronger flynn effect than cg
- social class, race, poverty (discrimination & inequality)
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What is Gardner's multiple intelligence theory?
people possess at least 8 types of intelligence: linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, naturalistic, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal and interpersonal
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What is sternberg's theory of successful intelligence?
intelligence is the ability to achieve success in life
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What are Chall's five stages of reading development?
Stage 0 = learning the alphabet and gaining phonemic awareness
Stage 1 = acquiring phonological recoding skills
Stage 2 = reading simple material
Stage 3 = extracting information by reading
Stage 4 = understanding different perspectives
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What is phonemic awareness?
ability to identify component sounds within words
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What is phonological recoding skills?
ability to translate letters into sounds and to blend sounds into words; informally called sounding out
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What are pre-reading skills?
- knowledge of reading direction
- knowledge of words
- knowledge of the letters of the alphabet
- phonemic awareness
knowledge of nursery rhymes is +ve associated with gains in phonemic awareness
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How does children identify words?
Use strategy choice process: procedure for selecting among alternative ways to solve a problem
1. Visually based retrieval: proceeding directly from the visual form of a word to its meaning (fast and easy words)
2. Phonological recording: visual word - verbal word - meaning (slow and harder words)
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How does word retrieval develop in kids?
Beginner reader use phonological recoding as associations btw word's visual forms and sounds are too weak for retrieval -> as they get better with phonological recoding -> greater use of visually based retrieval
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What is the simple view of reading?
perspective that comprehension depends solely on decoding skill and comprehension of oral language
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What is comprehension monitoring?
process of keeping track of one’s understanding of a verbal description or text
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What are symbols?
systems for representing our thoughts, feelings, and knowledge and for communicating
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What is language comprehension?
understanding what others say, sign or write
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What is language production?
the processing of speaking, signing or writing
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What is the hierarchy of language?
sounds > word > sentences > stories & conversations
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What are phonemes?
smallest units of meaningful sound e.g. /r/
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What are morphemes?
smallest units of meaning in a language e.g. dogs where dog is 1 morpheme and -s is another
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What is syntax?
rules specifying how words from different categories (nouns, verbs, adj ect) can be combined
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What is pragmatics?
knowledge about how language is used
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What is the key to language development?
Human brain - language is a species-specific behavior to humans only and species universal as all developing children can learn it
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What is the sensitive period for language development?
0 - 7 years old
- development changes in plasticity of language-related regions of the brain
- poorer working memory -> child have to extract and store smaller chunks of the language than adults
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How is it possible that bilingual children can learn 2 languages despite having to learn twice as much?
Bilingual infants attention to speech cues are heightened relative to monolingual infants -> bilingual infants are better than monolingual infants at purely visual information to discriminate btw unfamiliar language
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What is infant-directed speech?
Baby talk - repeating words, exaggerated speech and facial expressions
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What is prosody?
the characteristic rhythm and intonational patterns with which a language is spoken - cadence/melody
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What is categorical perception?
the perception of phonemes as belonging to discrete categories
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What is voice onset time (VOT)?
the length of time btw. when air passes through the lips and when the vocal cords start vibrating - e.g. /b/ and /p/
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What is word segmentation?
discovering where words begin and end in fluent speech
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What is distributional properties of speech?
in any language, certain sounds are more likely to occur together than are others
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What is babbling? And when do they do so?
repetitive consonant vowel sequences e.g. babababa or hand movement for deaf kids
- btw 6 - 10 months
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When do kids say their first words?
first words: 10 -15 months
first 50 words by 18 months
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What is overextension?
an overly broad interpretation of the meaning of a word - using the word dog for any 4 legged animal
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What is underextension?
an overly narrow interpretation of the meaning of a word e.g. dog does not refer to neighbor's dog
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How do adults influence word learning for children?
- use of IDS (quality and qty matter)
- use of prosody to stress new words
- repeat new words
- focus infant's attention on object before labeling/consistency in the visual environment
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What are the child assumptions that influence on word learning?
- mutual exclusivity: object have only 1 name
- whole object assumption: new word = entire object
- cross situational word learning: words linked to objects across situations are more likely to go together
-object that look the same go by same name
- linguistic cue: form of new word and its location in a sentence can help in interpreting a new word
- syntactic bootstrapping: strategy of using grammatical structure to infer the meaning of a new word e.g. was
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What is telegraphic speech?
short utterances that leave out non-essential words
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What is grammar?
morphology + syntax
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What is morphology?
set of rules governing internal structure of words
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What is over-regulation?
tendency to apply regular grammar to irregular forms of words e.g. cutted, hided
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What is pragmatic development?
-knowledge about how language can be used to communicate effectively and socially appropriately
- develops from concrete to more abstract
- strong links with theory of mind and social cognition
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What is the naivist perspective on word learning?
- humans posses universal grammar -> common grammatical structure underly all language
- not all words taught -> generative language
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What is criticism on nativist perspective?
- environmental factors are also universal - all parents talk to their children
- language learning is also reinforced -> infant babbling increases parental interaction
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What is Bronfenbrenner's bioecological model?
Child environment composed in nested structure: microsystem (immediate environment ), mesosystem (interconnection btw micosystem), exosystem (social setting - law, media) and macrosystem (culture, ideology, law, social class) and exist in the chronosystem (changes in person or environment over time)
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What is the microsystem?
the activities and relationships which the child directly participates - family
- bi directional nature of r/s within micro system e.g. parent's marital r/s affect they treat child and vice versa
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What is a family structure?
the number of and relationships among the people living in a household
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What is family dynamics?
the way in which family members interact through various relationships: mother with each child, father with each child, mother with father, and siblings with one another
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what is discipline?
the set of strategies and behaviors parents use to teach children how to behave appropriately
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what is internalization?
the process by which children learn and accept the reasons for desired behavior
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Why is internalization important for children?
reasoning focused on the effects of a behavior on other people (other oriented induction)
- empathizes why hitting hurt the other child
- teach empathy -> prosocial behavior
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How do parents best promote internalization?
-apply right amount of psychological pressure
- too little = discount parent's message
- too much = comply but feel forced/compliance to an external force i.e parents than to internalise
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What is punishment?
a negative stimulus that follows a behavior to reduce the likelihood that the behavior will occur again
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Is punishments effective to promote internalization?
No, time out or taking away privileges does not teach the child to behave in the future.
Spanking/hitting - not effective = the more spanked lead to less likely to behave more appropriately in the future + more likely to behave more aggressive & antisocial
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What is parenting style?
parenting behaviors and attitudes that set the emotional climate in regard to parent-child interactions, such as parental responsiveness and demandingness
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What is authoritative parenting style?
- High control + high warmth
- parents: set clear standards and limits and firm about enforcing but allow children autonomy within those limits + attentive and responsive to children's concern & needs, respect and consider their child's perspective
- child: pro-social behavior, higher competence, cope better with stress, lower probability
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What is permissive parenting style?
- low control + high warmth
- parents: responsive to child's need but do not regulate them
- child: impulsive, low self regulation, high externalizing and low school achievement, high risk of alochol/drug
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What is uninvolved parenting style?
-low control + low warmth
- parents: disengaged, no limit, no monitor their behavior + not supportive + rejectful and neglectful of child
- child: disturbed attachment, antisocial behavior, low academic, internalizing problems, substance abuse and risky behavior
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What is authoritarian parenting style?
- low control + low warmth
- parents: many rules and demands, few explanations, little sensitivity to child's perspective and needs
-child: less internalization and socialization, unhappier, unfriendlier, low in self confidence, higher risk of depression, aggression, delinquency, drug abuse
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what is bi-directionality of parent-child interactions?
The idea that parents and their children are mutually affected by one another's characteristics and behaviors
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What is play?
voluntary activities, particularly those of children, with no specific motivations beyond their inherent enjoyment
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What are the types of non-social play?
Unoccupied play - child watches only briefly, uninterested
onlooker play: watch other children play w/o joining
solitary play: engrossed in their own activity
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What are the types of social play?
Parallel play: play alongside other kids, doing same activity but independently
associative play" child play with other children in common activity - no shared goal, just do what do want, no coordination
cooperative play: child play with peers in organized activity with a goal
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What does play teach children?
- social emotional development: learn to cooperate
- experience happiness
- learn and practice empathy for others
- foster cognitive development: train problem solving, strengthen memory and express creativity
- language development + motor skills
- help child to cope with difficult situations
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What is a friend?
a person with whom an individual has an intimate, reciprocated, positive relationships
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What factors influence a child's friendship?
- peers who are friendly + act procsocially
- similar to themselves in maturity, cooperativeness, acceptance by peers ect
- physical location - become less important with age
- activities
- similar in age
- gender - girls with girls, boys with boys - race and ethnic
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What are the things that friends in both childhood and adolescence are similar than non friends?
- similar negative emotions i.e. distress, depression
- similar in academic motivation and self-perception of competence
- similar hostile intentions
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How are friendships in adolescence?
Increasingly important source of intimacy + self disclosure
- more exclusive - quality of friends
- less stable than children's
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What accounts for various age related changes that occur in children's friendship esp to their concept of friendship?
Selman says changes in children's reasoning about friendships are consequence of age-related qualitative changes in their ability to take others' perspectives
- understanding others' thoughts and feelings -> friendship need both parties need to be mutually satisfying
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How has technology creates and maintain friendship?
1. Greater anonymity - less social inhibitions esp for shy kids can interact
2.Less emphasis on physical appearance
3. More control over interactions - who you talk to, when, how
4. Finding similar peers is much easier
5. Connected 24/7
6. Fun to connect with friends online - play games, photos, vids
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What is rich-get richer hypothesis?
Youths that already have good social skills benefit from the Internet and related forms of tech when to developing r/s
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What is the social- compensation hypothesis?
Social media can be beneficial for lonely, depressed, and socially adolescents --> take time to think and revise what they want to say -> more likely to make personal disclosures online -> make new firends
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What are the positives of friendships?
Support and validation - help during transitions, buffer against bad experiences
development of social and cognitive skills
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What are possible costs of friendships/negative peer interactions?
Aggression and disruptive - friend with behavioral problems can influence child to engage in violence and other -ve behaviors
Alcohol and substance abuse
Bully and victimization
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What is relational aggression?
Aggression that involves excluding others from social group and do hard to their r/s - spread rumors, ignoring peers
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what are the gender differences in friendships?
Girls more likely than boys to desire closeness and dependency in friendship + worry about abandonment, loneliness, hurting others
Girls feel their r/s more intimate than boys - provide more validation, caring and help
Girl feel more betrayal with friends hurt them
Girls more likely to co-ruminate tgt - discuss problems of negative thoughts and feelings
boys and girls experience same amt of conflict + type of activities but girls just spent more time
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What is sociometer status?
a measurement that reflects the degree to which children are liked or disliked by their peers as a group
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What are the different peer status?
Popular: liked by many, dislike by few (high preference + high impact)
Controversial - liked by alot, disliked by alot (Mixed preference + high impact)
neglected- unnoticed by peers
rejected - liked by few and disliked by many
- aggressive-rejected - children prone to hostility (adhd)
-withdrawn-rejected - socially withdrawn
