Holy wars in Middle ages europe (part 2)

Question 1

Innocent III’s Quia maior

Answer 1

Innocent III’s Quia maior, was a formal letter to initiate the 5th crusade for Jerusalem and with a focus to help crusade preachers in recruitment which was made public in April 1213. This shows Innocent III learnt about from his failures of the 4th crusade and his emphases on divine obligation, salvation and unity to ensure loyal participation of the 5th crusade.

Question 2

The crusader as Christ´s vassal according to Innocent III

Answer 2

Crusaders as Christ’s vassal according to what Innocent III wrote in his Quia maior, made public in April 1213, that crusaders are like vassals to a King, that they are morally obligated to always answer the call of their “King” to aid him to recover the Holy land. This shows Innocent III’s use of feudal relationship that was common at that time as an allegory to convince people it is their responsibility to join the crusade.

Question 3

crusade and the liturgy of the Eucharist

Answer 3

Innocent III’s Quia maior that was made public in 1213, has a directive to integrate the themes of crusades into the liturgy of the Eucharist such that people had to prostrate themselves to verses of disposing God’s enemy and had to chant a prayer for success of the crusade. This shows that Innocent’s III attempt to give the crusade spiritual and divine legitimacy of the crusade, since taking the Eucharist is central to church practices, so is taking up arms for the crusade.

Question 4

Paris moral theologians and preaching

Answer 4

At the end of the 12th century, the paris moral theologians realized the need for new manner of preaching and training of pastoral care was needed and the theologians stressed the importance of practical theology and made their teachings as accessible to the secular clergy. This shows how the paris moral theologians help reformed/restructure preaching to make it more effective in the recruitment of people for crusades.

Question 5

The crusade preaching manual (when appears, why?, see p. 127)

Answer 5

The preaching manual came about during early 13th century, as an aid to crusade preachers. This help regulate and keep the crusade message consistent to ensure that the people recruited are united together. The manuals help legitimate the crusade as a religious form of just war, to justify violence and taking of arms for a holy cause.

Question 6

Oliver of Paderborn’s preaching

Answer 6

Oliver of Paderborn was a German crusade preacher that left for the 5th crusade in 1218, he was a veryeffective preacher and gave sermons that were highly emotional appealing and when he preached miracles and prodigies would occur.

This shows that his preaching was very charismatic and the miraculous events that occurred help strengthen credibility to his sermons which could inspire religious passion into crusading.

Question 7

Jacques de Vitry on the crusade preacher

Answer 7

Jacques de Vitryl, who became cardinal bishop of Tusculum in 1228, was a French crusade preacher and developed the notion of the special dignity of the crusade preacher and invoking the cross as crusade preachers were doing their duty in direct obedience to God’s commands. This shows how Jacques de Virtyl wanted to paint crusade preachers as having a special relationship with God that gives the preachers spiritual authority and that the crusade itself is a divine mission to help unite Christians by redeeming sinner under the cross.

Question 8

John of Abeville´s explanation for Jerusalem’s captivity

Answer 8

John of Abeville is a French cardinal bishop of Sabina and papal legate in September 1227. He explains that Jerusalem is help captivity because of the sins of Christians and their lack of repentance of sin. His explanation shows that he wanted a spiritual and moral reform/conversion of the people and to cleanse one’s souls to be faithful and only then would a crusade be successful.

Question 9

Frederick II´s pact with the sultan

Answer 9

Frederick who was the Holy Roman emperor in November 1220, signed the Treaty of Jaffa with the Egyptian sultan in Feb 1229 which returned the Jerusalem to Christian authority. His pact with the sultan as challenged the traditional view of Crusades as purely holy wars, that religious goals can be achieved via less violent means. -> an insult to Pope Gregory who excommunicated him, was able to achieve the goal of retrieving the holy land.

Question 10

Rachel suum videns

Answer 10

Rachel suum videns was formal bull written by Pope Gregory and made public in 1234, it was written soon when the Treaty of Jaffa was going to expire. It calls for crusade to aid the Holy land. Rachel suum videns explains what is meant by the idea of fighting of Christ, calling it a debt of gratitude for Christ and his suffering and displays how going for a crusade it an opportunity to show your faith in God. It shows how war for Christ justified both a morally and a spiritual act of one devotion to Christ and it was all planned by God

Question 11

Liturgy

Answer 11

A liturgy is the formal and ritualized prayer of the Church which includes the Eucharist service, the Divine Office and other public rites and formal prayers performed during the Middle Ages mostly in Latin. A defining feature of the First Crusade in the early 11th century (1000). The liturgy reflected the ideas of the crusade and how it was used to frame crusades as a sacramental act.

Question 12

Clamor

Answer 12

A clamor is a ritual practice of acknowledging one’s sin and to make a cry to God to exact his vengeance on the enemy. The practice of clamor emerged around the year 1000 (11th century). It shows how God plays an active role in Holy War and that war can be justified as a response to evil wrongdoing.

Question 13

Psalm 78

Answer 13

Psalm 78, is a series of verses used by many popes as the rally cry for crusade efforts and was used in Pope Urban famous sermon in 1095. Psalms 78 is about the plea for God’s wrath upon those who have desecrated His temple and land while begging for forgiveness of the sins of the Israelis. The invoking of Pslams 78 shows how the crusades are divinely legitimatized as an act of justice to correct wrong doings and to reclaim God’s inheritance.

Question 14

Las Navas de Tolosa

Answer 14

Las Navas de Tolosa is a place where the Spanish crusaders claim victory against the Almohads in 1212. The victory at Las Navas de Tolosa was due to God’s divine favour/God gave the crusaders that victory and that reinforced the belief that spiritual weapons/efforts (liturgy) are as important as physical efforts.

Question 15

Moralized Bibles

Answer 15

Moralized bibles are illustrated bibles commissioned by French royalty in the early 13th century. The moralized bibles shows linked the biblical text to the moral and spiritual goals of the crusade and that religious warfare was not just a physical battle but also a moral and spiritual struggle against sin and vice and how the bad guys are the Muslims and good guys are the Christians.

Question 16

Crusade and pilgrimage in liturgy versus the Ottomans

Answer 16

With the rise of the Ottomans as a threat. By the end of the 15th century, the liturgy of the crusade changed, and removed the traditional symbols of pilgrimage and replaced them with blessings for weapons and military banners, emphasizing warfare over spiritual journey. The liturgy reflected this shift, now focused on military action to protect Christendom, and transformed the Crusade into a defensive holy war for the survival of Christianity.

• no longer cared about the spiritual journey to Jerusalem -> we gotta defend ourselves

Question 17

Apocalyptic theme in fifteenth century

Answer 17

The apocalyptic theme became dominant after the fall of Constantinople in 1454 (mid 15th century) and were seen as the signs of the end times, the Ottomans were seen an instrument of divine punishment for Christian sins and were the last battle to usher in the victory of the church and the Second Coming. The apocalyptic theme showed the anxiety about annihilation and thus the need to repent in expectation of Judgment.

• Initially, the crusaders are the bringers of the end times (which is why they ran around converting and conquering), now its the opposite, it is the ottomans.

Question 18

Ezechiel 9

Answer 18

Ezechiel 9 is chapter of the bible that was painted as a frescoes in S. Maria in 1123 (early 12th century) and depicts the scene of the massacre of the idolaters who defiled the Temple. Ezechial 9 fresco paints the emphasis of the pollution of holy places and there it is used to justify holy warfare

Question 19

Nebuchadnezzar

Answer 19

Nebuchadnezzar was King of Babylon and was main character in the Daniel cycle frescos painted in in S. Maria in 1123 (early 12th century). He would often be seen engaging in idol worship and the destruction of the temple. Nebuchadnezzar in the frescos showed how he was demonized and his kingdom was linked to the heretics and in how the crusaders overcome such a evil.

Question 20

Literal meaning in Arabic of jihad

Answer 20

Jihad’s literal meaning is “striving” or “exerting oneself” with the implication on the basis of its usage in the Qu’ran, “with regard to one’s religion”. The literal meaning of Jihad shows it is a personal and collective duty to physically defend and expand Islam.

Question 21

“Verse of the Sword”

Answer 21

The verse of the sword (Sura 9, Verse 5) was revealed in year 631 (early 7th century) talks about revocation of the immunity granted by God and Muhammad to the pagans who have not converted to Islam, that Muslims should fight/kill Non-Muslims if they don’t convert. The verse of the Swords gives justification for violence in the name of spreading Islam.

Question 22

Mahdi

Answer 22

Mahdi is a Sunni Muslim messianic figure prophesied to appear at the end of times to restore justice and complete the conquests that early Muslims began but were unable to finish. This shows that the Muslims had a strong belief in the end of the world and it keeps them motivated for their military conquest.

Question 23

Scope of the term shahid (martyr) pg 27

Answer 23

Shadid means dying after fighting for the cause of Allah but by 16th century the scope expanded to include non combat causes. The expansion of the scope of Shahid shows martyrdom evolved beyond warfare yet still hold great religious significance because of the spiritual rewards of fighting for Islam and ties the notion of religious devotion to acts of war and sacrifice.

Question 24

Al-Ghazali

Answer 24

Al-Ghazali (d. 1111) is a theologian redefined the concept of jihad by emphasizing the internal struggle against the soul’s desires, known as the “greater jihad.” Al-Ghazali use of military language for spiritual discipline as a battle, shows the emphasis on purification similar to the Christians about the purification of the souls.

Question 25

Ibn al-`Arabi (the sufi)

Answer 25

Ibn al-`Arabi (d.1240) was a Spanish Muslim mystic that says greater jihads also included those who engage in improving society and providing welfare while also aiming for self purification and he puts military/jihad as a lower rank of those of who practice humanitarian aid. His nuanced approach balanced mystical ethics with traditional law, showing how religious devotion could motivate either warfare or social welfare.

Question 26

militancy and asceticism

Answer 26

Militancy and asceticism is about the two types of jihads, the lesser/outer jihad being fighting against unbelievers and the greater/inner jihad being the repentance of the soul and acts of self denial. The Sufi groups practiced both aspects as seen in the 12th century. Militancy and asceticism are not seen to contradict each other but complementary to each other and that spiritual warfare is supplement to aggressive warfare.

Question 27

Function of jizya according to the jurist ibn al-'Arabi

Answer 27

Ibn al-'Arabi was a spanish muslim writer (d. 1148) said the function was to humiliate the Spanish Christians in the 11th century as they had to pay tax with many rules to follow. The function of the Jizya was to show Islams dominance over the Christians.

Question 28

Ibn Taymiyya's innovations

Answer 28

Ibn Taymiyya is a Muslim theologian and polemicist (d. 1328) who wrote significantly about Muslim ethics and wrote about the quality of other Muslim's Islam that it is based on one's willingness to fight for Islam and states that false Muslims are more dangerous than obvious infidels and must be dealt with consistently. His teaching are parallels Christians view on heretics and there is a right way of practicing Islam.

Question 29

Mahmud of Ghazna

Answer 29

Mahmud of Ghazna (d. 1031) was a Moghul ruler who saw it was his mission to expand Islam's influence launched about 31 major campaigns against the Hindus and Buddhist of northern India. His campaigns primarily focused on showing Islam's dominance and the impotence of Hindu God's by destroying their temples. -> need to show religious superiority can also be seen in Christian crusade.

Question 30

akusô

Answer 30

akuso means evil monks as these low ranking monks carried weapons that is prohibited by the Buddhist monastic code during the Heian period (late 8th to early 9th century). The use of the word showed how the institutional or economic requirements of the temple contradict the Buddhist ethics of non violence, to express one's objection.

Question 31

aristocratisation of the monastic leadership

Answer 31

During the Heian period (in late 8th century or early 9th century), aristocratic families gave care of the monasteries ie children not needed for the lineage became monks and the families also donated a lot of money. This shows the significant role in the militarization of monasteries because religious interests for economic and political power and those of the aristocratic families were intertwined.

Question 32

acquired awakening and consequences for violence

Answer 32

The acquired awakening and consequenes for violence was a means of justification for the akuso's violence developed during the Insei period (early 12th century). It justify saying that the akuso inherently or by birth attained awakening and therefore are exempted from pursuing the path of Buddhist practice and therefore can practice violence. This doctrinal justification was to please patrons to ensure money flow + similar to Christians like they are doing it for a just cause = violence is not actually a sin in this case.

Question 33

Hônen and reaction to this teaching

Answer 33

Honen (1173 -1263) who led Pure Land groups which taught that faith in Amida Buddha and calling of his name is enough for religious liberation, implying that offering donations to monasteries or entering celibacy would not produce religious merits and since these are two important Buddhist practices that form the basis of Buddhist monasteries, Honen and followers came after harsh criticism and was sent into exile. The reaction shows that his teachings was a threat to the economic and social standing of the monasteries similar to how Roman Catholic church also want to prevent the Protestants to cause socioeconmic damage to the church.

Question 34

The ikkô ikki

Answer 34

The ikkô ikki is about the staged peasant uprisings of the Hogging members due to the constant economic exploitation by their feudal lords in the late 15th century (1488). The rallying of peasant under the same sect -> use religious ideology to unify themselves and mobilised. ikko = in absolute pursuit of religious path ikki = peasant groups (Pure Land Buddhist term)

Question 35

Religious idea of equality in Shin Buddhism

Answer 35

Shin/True Pure Land Buddhism religious idea of quality was how both practioners and brethen are equals replaced the hierarchical structure in court, state aristocratic Buddhist and feudal society. This allowed for peasants to unite together against the Hongan-ji in late 15th century. This shows how feeling of equality made people felt a sense of brotherhood and responsibility which allowed them to unite together.

Question 36

Amida and the kami according to True Pure Land Buddhism

Answer 36

According to True Pure Land Buddhist, in 16th century, the ikki believed that Amida (a Budha) was the only effective means of achieving Buddhahood and that no gods (kami) or buddhas other than Amida has any real power over them. By focusing exclusively on Amida, the sect's teachings provided a more straightforward, egalitarian path to salvation, unburdened by the complex, ritualistic obligations to kami or other deities -> easy to get into the religion

Question 37

Impact of the belief that Amida grants His grace regardless of merit

Answer 37

The Honganji, in the 16th century that one's occupation does not limit to one's salvation and those who kill for a living have equal chance for salvation. This allowed them to build a sense of brother hood similar to the Christians who believed everyone is equal before God -> religiously status wise they are all the same working together for the same cause + justify killing no one outside the Honganji faith was destined for the Pure Land or for Buddhahood -> giving very christian vibes of only one true god and the rest shall burn

Question 38

Temple towns

Answer 38

Temple towns were settlements that developed around religious temples on temple-owned land like the ones in the Honganji sect in late 15 century to 16th century. The temple town's autonomy created tensions with military rulers like the daimyō, who sought centralized control and saw temple towns as challenges to their authority.

Question 39

Mikawa uprising

Answer 39

Mikawa uprising occured in 1563 (middle 16th century), a warrior named Tokugawa Ieyasu attacked the Honganji temple's rights which cause the sect to fight back, resulting in warefare. The uprising was the first time that religion played into warrior politics as Iseyasu's retainers that help lower positions were split along religious lines.

Question 40

Oda Nobunaga and the Osaka Hongangi

Answer 40

Lord Oda Nobunaga who wanted to unify Japan under his rule, demanded special tax from Honganji temples in Osaka, they say this as a abrogation of rights and treated his actions as that to its existence that led to a 10 year war from 1570 - 1580. This shows how power + religion very scary like the catholic church -> need to be put down

Question 41

Indian ("native American") religion for the Puritan settlers

Answer 41

Indian ("native American") religion described by the Puritan settlers in the early 17th century, was witchcraft and satanic inversion and that the Devil was their god. The demonizing of the indian religion shows how they positioned their own beliefs as morally superior and divinely sanctioned and weaponize religious narratives to justify conquest and cultural domination over the Indians

Question 42

regeneration

Answer 42

Regeneration is the idea of moral, national, and spiritual rebirth/ rebirth of human being from death of sin into image of God as believed the American Civil War in 1860s (late 19th century). The belief show how people viewed the suffering and sacrifice of war, as a means for a country to be cleansed of its moral sins.

Question 43

freedom (in American culture)

Answer 43

Freedom (in American culture) means liberty that is divinely willed and divinely granted by God which has been regularly associated since the 18th century. The freedom idea has been often use religious language to frame war/conflict as a moral or even sacred mission to defend or spread freedom.

Question 44

Old World

Answer 44

Old World refers to Europe in the late 18th century, especially the established monarchies, aristocratic societies, and colonial empires that the American colonies were rebelling against. The use of Old World as spiritually and morally corrupt, the war could be seen as just and necessary -> fighting for a clean new world!!

Question 45

universalism

Answer 45

universalism is the idea that America's wars are "World's war" that is that the American values are not just for America but for everyone as seen in their wars such as the Civil War in the late 19th century. The idea of universalism paints America as the chosen nation with a divine responsibility to redeem or uplift the world and therefore also allows justification for conflict when America does it.

Question 46

Last world empire

Answer 46

Last world empire refers to the idea that America is the final empire to replace all empires and is destined to lead the world to the final stage of history that is given by God's will, which would usher in the 2nd coming. It provides theological justification for warfare by framing it as part of a divinely guided historical process leading to God's final kingdom

Question 47

Past and future

Answer 47

Past refers to old traditions and oppressive systems like tyranny, while future refers to progress, freedom and a better society as written by Melville in mid 19th century in his novel the White-Jacket. It paints how warfare it as a necessary struggle to move from oppression (the Past) toward divine freedom and destiny (the Future)

Question 48

majority and minority

Answer 48

Based on what Wendell Phillips (d.1184) meant, the majority means those who are on God's side and even though they are smaller in number are considered the true majority. The minority stands for those who are not on God side but larger in number. This belief can frame war as a sacred duty, where the righteous minority is willing to fight (and even die) for what they see as a God-ordained cause, regardless of the size or power of the opposing force.

Question 49

Left Behind series

Answer 49

Left Behind is a book series first published in 1995, written by Timothy LaHaye (fundamentalist pastor) and Jerry Jenkins. Left Behind series is about the story of the survival, combats and martyrdom of men and women after the Rapture, that is those left behind are people who have to endure the Great Tribulation caused by Antichrist and his minions while true Christians are taken to heaven. The book series shows how religious wars, like the Crusades, were often framed as missions to convert or defeat the "other." -> also leaning into the apocalyptic theme of needing to convert souls and defeat the enemies of christ

Question 50

Modes of reading Evangelical fiction

Answer 50

Modes of reading evangelical fiction are essentially how evangelical readers engage with the books, using it as a means to discuss with their community and strengthen their faith or a means to learn about the scripture and more about their faith. This was seen based on the comments from those who read the left behind series that was first published in 1995. This shows how evangelical ficiton can encourage participation in or support for war, particularly when framed as part of the "divine" plan for the world’s end as they get to see a imagined one as they read.