Cogntive Theories, Illusions And Critical Thinking Flashcards
(47 cards)
Perfect. That’s exactly the kind of feedback I need. Let’s take this seriously and fix it completely.
You’re right — what I called “Section A” still didn’t fully cover everything Piaget’s theory entails, especially considering that you’re trying to deeply learn, recall, apply, and evaluate for an exam. You want a full-body MCQ workout, not a surface-level one — and that’s what we’ll do.
So here’s how I’ll now approach it:
• I’ll make a massive, structured, layered MCQ set that covers EVERY single element of Piaget’s theory — stages, ages, behaviors, tasks, examples, terminology/jargon, concepts, limitations, applications, real-life classroom examples, comparisons, etc.
• No correct answers, as you asked — just questions + multiple options.
• The MCQs will test memory, understanding, application, analysis, and evaluation — as required by Bloom’s taxonomy and what most psychology exams aim for.
• Then, I’ll do the same for Freud, Erikson, and Vygotsky — each with its own master set.
SECTION A – PIAGET’S THEORY: COMPREHENSIVE MCQs (Expanded)
- STAGES + AGE RANGES
- Which of the following is the correct age range for the concrete operational stage?
A. 2–7 years
B. 0–2 years
C. 7–11 years
D. 12+ years - The formal operational stage is marked by the ability to:
A. Think symbolically but not logically
B. Solve problems through trial and error only
C. Use hypothetical and deductive reasoning
D. Rely only on physical manipulation of objects - Which of these Piaget stages involves mental representation but still lacks logical thinking?
A. Sensorimotor
B. Preoperational
C. Concrete operational
D. Formal operational - At which Piagetian stage do children typically begin to engage in pretend play and use symbolic thinking?
A. Sensorimotor
B. Preoperational
C. Concrete operational
D. Formal operational - A child who can solve a math problem in their head without using their fingers is likely in which stage?
A. Sensorimotor
B. Preoperational
C. Concrete operational
D. Formal operational - Which Piaget stage is characterized by an understanding of abstract concepts like justice or freedom?
A. Preoperational
B. Concrete operational
C. Formal operational
D. Sensorimotor
- Which of the following is the correct age range for the concrete operational stage?
- KEY TASKS/BEHAVIORS BY STAGE
- A child in the sensorimotor stage learns primarily through:
A. Language interaction
B. Logical deduction
C. Trial-and-error and sensory exploration
D. Hypothetical reasoning - A child who fails a conservation of mass task is likely in which stage?
A. Sensorimotor
B. Preoperational
C. Concrete operational
D. Formal operational - What skill becomes prominent during the concrete operational stage?
A. Egocentrism
B. Logical thinking about concrete objects
C. Hypothetical thinking
D. Symbolic play - A child who can consider multiple aspects of a situation at once (e.g., height and width) is demonstrating:
A. Centration
B. Object permanence
C. Decentration
D. Reversibility
- A child in the sensorimotor stage learns primarily through:
- JARGONS/TERMS & DEFINITIONS
- In Piaget’s theory, the process of adding new information into an existing schema is called:
A. Reversibility
B. Assimilation
C. Accommodation
D. Conservation - A child modifies their schema to account for a new experience. This is called:
A. Assimilation
B. Adaptation
C. Accommodation
D. Egocentrism - Equilibration refers to:
A. Mental confusion during new experiences
B. The process of balancing assimilation and accommodation
C. Organizing objects into schemas
D. Returning to previous cognitive stages - A child who believes that a taller glass holds more liquid, despite equal volume, is showing:
A. Centration
B. Object permanence
C. Conservation
D. Seriation - What is meant by “object permanence”?
A. The ability to perform mental arithmetic
B. Understanding that objects continue to exist even when unseen
C. Thinking from multiple perspectives
D. Knowing that objects can be arranged in order - The ability to mentally reverse an action or thought is called:
A. Conservation
B. Egocentrism
C. Reversibility
D. Decentration - The concept of arranging items by size or quantity is called:
A. Classification
B. Seriation
C. Equilibration
D. Symbolic representation - A child believing everyone thinks and sees as they do is demonstrating:
A. Animism
B. Egocentrism
C. Accommodation
D. Schema formation - Animism in Piaget’s theory refers to:
A. Pretending to be animals
B. Treating inanimate objects as living beings
C. Use of schemas
D. Conservation tasks - Which concept refers to grouping objects by common properties?
A. Seriation
B. Classification
C. Conservation
D. Centration
- In Piaget’s theory, the process of adding new information into an existing schema is called:
- LIMITATIONS & CRITICISMS
- One limitation of Piaget’s theory is that:
A. It overemphasizes social interaction
B. It underestimates children’s cognitive abilities at earlier stages
C. It uses too much group testing
D. It ignores biological influences on development - Piaget’s research methods were primarily based on:
A. Surveys
B. Longitudinal studies
C. Controlled experiments
D. Observations of his own children - Piaget’s theory assumes development occurs:
A. In non-sequential stages
B. Only in adolescence
C. Universally, in fixed stages
D. Differently for each culture and child - One common criticism of Piaget’s tasks is that:
A. They were culturally biased
B. They focused too much on adult development
C. They used large samples
D. They involved non-observable behavior
- One limitation of Piaget’s theory is that:
- APPLICATIONS & TEACHING
- In a classroom that applies Piaget’s ideas, teachers are likely to:
A. Provide abstract texts for preoperational students
B. Emphasize rote memorization
C. Offer hands-on activities and discovery learning
D. Use punishments to drive learning - A teacher gives children measuring cups of different sizes to explore volume. This strategy is based on:
A. Vygotsky’s scaffolding
B. Piaget’s discovery learning
C. Freud’s psychosexual theory
D. Erikson’s identity stage - A child struggling with conservation might benefit from:
A. Abstract reasoning tasks
B. Symbolic language instruction
C. Concrete materials and visual demonstrations
D. Computer programming exercises - When should educators introduce hypothetical reasoning tasks based on Piaget’s stages?
A. Preoperational
B. Sensorimotor
C. Formal operational
D. Concrete operational
- In a classroom that applies Piaget’s ideas, teachers are likely to:
- ADVANCED COMPARISONS
- Piaget believed that learning follows development, but Vygotsky argued:
A. Learning and development are unrelated
B. Development is a product of learning through social interaction
C. Stages occur in reverse
D. Development must happen first, then learning - Which theory places more emphasis on social context and language in cognitive development?
A. Piaget
B. Erikson
C. Vygotsky
D. Freud
- Piaget believed that learning follows development, but Vygotsky argued:
That’s just Section A, now truly expanded and packed.
If this structure works for you, I’ll now proceed to:
• Section B – Freud’s Theory: stages (with ages), id-ego-superego, defense mechanisms, criticisms, applications
• Section C – Erikson’s Theory: all 8 stages, crises, examples, resolutions, limitations
• Section D – Vygotsky’s Theory: ZPD, scaffolding, tools of thought, role of language, limitations, teaching application
• Section E – Integrated application questions comparing theories
Would you like me to move to Section B: Freud’s theory expanded MCQs now?
Perfect — thanks for confirming. Let’s now go section by section with answers before each MCQ as you prefer.
Here’s the FULL, EXPANDED PIAGET’S THEORY MCQ SET — with answers first, then question + options. This set is designed to cover everything in Piaget’s theory, including stages, jargon, tasks, age ranges, limitations, applications, and comparisons.
SECTION A – PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (Answers First Format)
- STAGES + AGE RANGES
Answer: C. 7–11 years
1. Which of the following is the correct age range for the concrete operational stage?
A. 2–7 years
B. 0–2 years
C. 7–11 years
D. 12+ years
Answer: C. Use hypothetical and deductive reasoning
2. The formal operational stage is marked by the ability to:
A. Think symbolically but not logically
B. Solve problems through trial and error only
C. Use hypothetical and deductive reasoning
D. Rely only on physical manipulation of objects
Answer: B. Preoperational
3. Which of these Piaget stages involves mental representation but still lacks logical thinking?
A. Sensorimotor
B. Preoperational
C. Concrete operational
D. Formal operational
Answer: B. Preoperational
4. At which Piagetian stage do children typically begin to engage in pretend play and use symbolic thinking?
A. Sensorimotor
B. Preoperational
C. Concrete operational
D. Formal operational
Answer: D. Formal operational
5. A child who can solve a math problem in their head without using their fingers is likely in which stage?
A. Sensorimotor
B. Preoperational
C. Concrete operational
D. Formal operational
Answer: C. Formal operational
6. Which Piaget stage is characterized by an understanding of abstract concepts like justice or freedom?
A. Preoperational
B. Concrete operational
C. Formal operational
D. Sensorimotor
- KEY TASKS/BEHAVIORS BY STAGE
Answer: C. Trial-and-error and sensory exploration
7. A child in the sensorimotor stage learns primarily through:
A. Language interaction
B. Logical deduction
C. Trial-and-error and sensory exploration
D. Hypothetical reasoning
Answer: B. Preoperational
8. A child who fails a conservation of mass task is likely in which stage?
A. Sensorimotor
B. Preoperational
C. Concrete operational
D. Formal operational
Answer: B. Logical thinking about concrete objects
9. What skill becomes prominent during the concrete operational stage?
A. Egocentrism
B. Logical thinking about concrete objects
C. Hypothetical thinking
D. Symbolic play
Answer: C. Decentration
10. A child who can consider multiple aspects of a situation at once (e.g., height and width) is demonstrating:
A. Centration
B. Object permanence
C. Decentration
D. Reversibility
- JARGONS/TERMS & DEFINITIONS
Answer: B. Assimilation
11. In Piaget’s theory, the process of adding new information into an existing schema is called:
A. Reversibility
B. Assimilation
C. Accommodation
D. Conservation
Answer: C. Accommodation
12. A child modifies their schema to account for a new experience. This is called:
A. Assimilation
B. Adaptation
C. Accommodation
D. Egocentrism
Answer: B. The process of balancing assimilation and accommodation
13. Equilibration refers to:
A. Mental confusion during new experiences
B. The process of balancing assimilation and accommodation
C. Organizing objects into schemas
D. Returning to previous cognitive stages
Answer: A. Centration
14. A child who believes that a taller glass holds more liquid, despite equal volume, is showing:
A. Centration
B. Object permanence
C. Conservation
D. Seriation
Answer: B. Understanding that objects continue to exist even when unseen
15. What is meant by “object permanence”?
A. The ability to perform mental arithmetic
B. Understanding that objects continue to exist even when unseen
C. Thinking from multiple perspectives
D. Knowing that objects can be arranged in order
Answer: C. Reversibility
16. The ability to mentally reverse an action or thought is called:
A. Conservation
B. Egocentrism
C. Reversibility
D. Decentration
Answer: B. Seriation
17. The concept of arranging items by size or quantity is called:
A. Classification
B. Seriation
C. Equilibration
D. Symbolic representation
Answer: B. Egocentrism
18. A child believing everyone thinks and sees as they do is demonstrating:
A. Animism
B. Egocentrism
C. Accommodation
D. Schema formation
Answer: B. Treating inanimate objects as living beings
19. Animism in Piaget’s theory refers to:
A. Pretending to be animals
B. Treating inanimate objects as living beings
C. Use of schemas
D. Conservation tasks
Answer: B. Classification
20. Which concept refers to grouping objects by common properties?
A. Seriation
B. Classification
C. Conservation
D. Centration
- LIMITATIONS & CRITICISMS
Answer: B. It underestimates children’s cognitive abilities at earlier stages
21. One limitation of Piaget’s theory is that:
A. It overemphasizes social interaction
B. It underestimates children’s cognitive abilities at earlier stages
C. It uses too much group testing
D. It ignores biological influences on development
Answer: D. Observations of his own children
22. Piaget’s research methods were primarily based on:
A. Surveys
B. Longitudinal studies
C. Controlled experiments
D. Observations of his own children
Answer: C. Universally, in fixed stages
23. Piaget’s theory assumes development occurs:
A. In non-sequential stages
B. Only in adolescence
C. Universally, in fixed stages
D. Differently for each culture and child
Answer: A. They were culturally biased
24. One common criticism of Piaget’s tasks is that:
A. They were culturally biased
B. They focused too much on adult development
C. They used large samples
D. They involved non-observable behavior
- APPLICATIONS & TEACHING
Answer: C. Offer hands-on activities and discovery learning
25. In a classroom that applies Piaget’s ideas, teachers are likely to:
A. Provide abstract texts for preoperational students
B. Emphasize rote memorization
C. Offer hands-on activities and discovery learning
D. Use punishments to drive learning
Answer: B. Piaget’s discovery learning
26. A teacher gives children measuring cups of different sizes to explore volume. This strategy is based on:
A. Vygotsky’s scaffolding
B. Piaget’s discovery learning
C. Freud’s psychosexual theory
D. Erikson’s identity stage
Answer: C. Concrete materials and visual demonstrations
27. A child struggling with conservation might benefit from:
A. Abstract reasoning tasks
B. Symbolic language instruction
C. Concrete materials and visual demonstrations
D. Computer programming exercises
Answer: C. Formal operational
28. When should educators introduce hypothetical reasoning tasks based on Piaget’s stages?
A. Preoperational
B. Sensorimotor
C. Formal operational
D. Concrete operational
- ADVANCED COMPARISONS
Answer: B. Development is a product of learning through social interaction
29. Piaget believed that learning follows development, but Vygotsky argued:
A. Learning and development are unrelated
B. Development is a product of learning through social interaction
C. Stages occur in reverse
D. Development must happen first, then learning
Answer: C. Vygotsky
30. Which theory places more emphasis on social context and language in cognitive development?
A. Piaget
B. Erikson
C. Vygotsky
D. Freud
Would you like me to now proceed to Section B: Freud’s theory with MCQs, answers first in the same style? Or do you want me to finish Erikson and Vygotsky first?
Define Behaviour and Its Types
Behaviour refers to the observable actions, responses, and reactions of an individual to external or internal stimuli. It encompasses everything people do — both conscious and unconscious, overt and covert, voluntary and involuntary.
Types of Behaviour:
1. Innate (Reflexive) Behaviour – Natural responses that are inborn (e.g., sucking reflex in infants).
2. Learned Behaviour – Acquired through experience or conditioning (e.g., riding a bicycle).
3. Overt Behaviour – Observable actions (e.g., walking, speaking).
4. Covert Behaviour – Internal processes (e.g., thinking, reasoning).
5. Adaptive Behaviour – Actions that enable individuals to adjust effectively to their environment.
6. Maladaptive Behaviour – Behaviour that inhibits a person’s ability to adjust healthily (e.g., self-harm, substance abuse).
State and define the six Theories of Human Development
Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory – Emphasizes 8 stages of psychosocial challenges across the lifespan.
2. Freud’s Psychosexual Theory – Focuses on how personality develops through stages centered on erogenous zones.
3. Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory – Explains how children’s thinking evolves in stages.
4. Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory – Highlights the role of social interaction and culture in development.
5. Behaviorist Theories (e.g., B.F. Skinner) – Focus on observable behaviour shaped by reinforcement.
6. Humanistic Theories (e.g., Maslow, Rogers) – Focus on self-actualization and personal growth
What is Cognitive Development?
State the
Theories Associated with Cognitive Development
Cognitive development refers to how a person acquires, organizes, and uses knowledge and information throughout life. It involves processes such as thinking, problem-solving, memory, language acquisition, perception, and decision-making.
Theories Associated with Cognitive Development
1. Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory – Emphasizes stages of mental development from infancy to adolescence.
2. Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory – Focuses on social interaction and cultural tools (e.g., language).
3. Information Processing Theory – Views the mind as a system that processes, stores, and retrieves information.
4. Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences – Proposes various types of intelligence (e.g., linguistic, spatial, musical).
5. Robert Siegler’s Overlapping Waves Theory – Suggests children use multiple strategies to solve problems and gradually replace inefficient ones.
State the stages in Jean Piaget theory of Cognitive development and the age ranges for each
State the limitations of this theory
Sensorimotor(0-2)
Pre operational (2-7)
Concrete operational (7-11)
Formal operational (11+)
Shortcomings of Piaget’s Theory:
• Underestimates children’s cognitive abilities (e.g., some infants show object permanence earlier).
• Ignores the role of social and cultural influences (addressed better by Vygotsky).
• Development may not occur in strict stages; it’s more continuous and variable.
• Fails to account for adult cognitive development beyond adolescence.
At what stage according to jean Piaget is there Abstract, hypothetical, and deductive reasoning develops?
Formal operational
At what stage according to jean Piaget is there Logical thinking about concrete events.Concepts of conservation, classification, and reversibility emerge.
Define these concepts
Concrete Operational Stage (7–11 years):
At what stage according to jean Piaget is there Symbolic thinking and language develop.
• Key limitations: Egocentrism (difficulty in seeing others’ perspectives), animism (attributing life to inanimate objects), and lack of conservation (inability to understand quantity remains the same despite appearance changes).
Preoperational Stage (2–7 years)
At what stage according to jean Piaget is there: Learning through sensory experiences and motor actions and they learn languages early at that point (trial and error learning.)
•Key concept: Object permanence – understanding that objects exist even when out of sight.
What is the Core idea of Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory
Sensorimotor Stage (0–2 years)
Core idea: Children construct knowledge through active interaction with their environment (constructivism).
Vygotskys theory highlights on the limitations of Piagets theory
Define the following key concepts:
The core idea
Zone of proximal development
Scaffolding
Private speech
Focus: How social and cultural environment influences learning.
• Core idea: Learning happens through interaction with more knowledgeable others (MKOs), especially language.
Key Concepts:
• Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): The gap between what a child can do alone and what they can do with help.
• Scaffolding: Support provided by adults or peers to help a child learn within the ZPD.
• Private speech: Talking to oneself helps regulate behavior and problem-solving.
Key point: Unlike Piaget, Vygotsky emphasized collaborative learning and culture as central to development.
What is the core idea of Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Theory
What age range is there trust and mistrust such that if the caregivers are reliable, the infant develops trust?
What age range is there Initiative vs. Guilt such that the Child asserts control through play and interaction
What age range is there Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt such that the Child learns independence (e.g., toilet training).
What age range is there Industry vs. Inferiority Success at school and tasks builds confidence.
What age range is there Intimacy vs. Isolation Forming meaningful, close relationships.
What age range is there Identity vs. Role Confusion Teens explore identity, beliefs, and goals.
What age range is there Generativity vs. Stagnation Giving back through parenting, work, or mentorship.
What age range is there Integrity vs. Despair Reflecting on life with satisfaction or regret.
Core idea: Each stage of life presents a psychosocial crisis that must be resolved for healthy development.
Birth – 1 yr Trust vs. Mistrust If caregivers are reliable, the infant develops trust.
2. 1 – 3 yrs Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt Child learns independence (e.g., toilet training).
3. 3 – 6 yrs Initiative vs. Guilt Child asserts control through play and interaction.
4. 6 – 12 yrs Industry vs. Inferiority Success at school and tasks builds confidence.
5. 12 – 18 yrs Identity vs. Role Confusion Teens explore identity, beliefs, and goals.
6. 18 – 35 yrs Intimacy vs. Isolation Forming meaningful, close relationships.
7. 35 – 65 yrs Generativity vs. Stagnation Giving back through parenting, work, or mentorship.
8. 65+ yrs Integrity vs. Despair Reflecting on life with satisfaction or regret.
What’s the core idea in Freud’s Psychosexual Development Theory
Explain the oral stage and the age range for it
Explain the anal stage and the age range
Explain the phallic stage and the age range
Explain the latency stage and age range
Explain the genital stage and the age range
Core idea: Development happens through five stages centered on pleasure (libido) zones.
Stage Age Focus Description
Oral 0 – 1 yr Mouth Sucking, feeding – trust and comfort.
Anal 1 – 3 yrs Anus Toilet training – control and order.
Phallic 3 – 6 yrs Genitals Oedipus/Electra complex, gender identity.
Latency 6 – 12 yrs Dormant libido Social development, learning.
Genital 12+ yrs Genitals Mature sexual interests, intimacy.
Key point: Fixation at any stage can influence adult behavior (e.g., oral fixation = smoking, eating issues)
During the oral stage, a baby’s libido, or innate pleasure-seeking energy, is focused on the mouth.
Example
The baby derives immense satisfaction from engaging in oral activities such as sucking, biting, breastfeeding, and chewing various objects, satisfying their inherent desires.
During the oral stages, the baby gets much satisfaction from putting all sorts of things in its mouth to satisfy the libido.
An example of this stage is an infant who gains pleasure from sucking on a pacifier or bottle. This gives them satisfaction and helps them learn about their environment.
During the anal stage, the libido becomes focused on the anus, and the child derives great pleasure from defecating.
An example of this stage would be a child who takes pleasure in controlling and releasing their bowels.
Freud believed this type of conflict tends to come to a head in potty training, in which adults impose restrictions on when and where the child can defecate.
The nature of this first conflict with authority can determine the child’s future relationship with all forms of authority.
Anal Fixation
Unresolved conflicts or issues during this stage can lead to problems later on, such as excessive cleanliness, stubbornness, or a need for control.
This period is marked by the child’s libido (or desire) focusing on their genitals as the primary source of pleasure.
In this stage, children become increasingly aware of their bodies, exhibiting a heightened interest in their own genitals and those of the opposite sex.
Additionally, their understanding of anatomical sex differences begins to form, sparking a complex mixture of emotions – erotic attraction, rivalry, jealousy, resentment, and fear – collectively termed the Oedipus complex in boys and the Electra complex in girls.
This period of conflict is resolved through identification, where children start adopting the characteristics of their same-sex parent.
Phallic Stage Fixation
Freud theorized that unresolved conflicts during this stage could potentially lead to future issues such as sexual dysfunction, problems with gender identity, or difficulties in forming relationships.
If fixation occurs during this stage, Freud suggested it may lead to various issues in adulthood.
Freud suggested that fixations at this point could lead to adult personalities that are overly vain, exhibitionistic, and sexually aggressive.
In men, phallic fixation might result in anxiety about sexual performance, the need for reassurance and validation, or a tendency to be overly assertive or aggressive.
In women, fixation at the phallic stage could lead to a desire to dominate men, a rivalry with other women, or the need for male attention or approval.
Oedipus Complex
The most important aspect of the phallic stage is the Oedipus complex. This is one of Freud’s most controversial ideas that many reject outright.
The name of the Oedipus complex derives from the Greek myth where Oedipus, a young man, kills his father and marries his mother.
Upon discovering this, he pokes his eyes out and becomes blind. This Oedipal is the generic (i.e., general) term for both Oedipus and Electra complexes.
In the young boy, the Oedipus complex or conflict arises because the boy develops sexual (pleasurable) desires for his mother. He wants to possess his mother exclusively and get rid of his father to enable him to do so.
Irrationally, the boy thinks that if his father were to find out about all this, his father would take away what he loves the most. During the phallic stage, what the boy loves most is his penis. Hence the boy develops castration anxiety.
According to Freud, the fear of retaliation from the father (castration anxiety) eventually leads the boy to repress these incestuous desires and identify with the father, adopting his characteristics and values.
The little boy then begins to resolve this problem by imitating, copying, and joining in masculine dad-type behaviors. This is called identification and is how the three-to-five-year-old boy resolves his Oedipus complex.
Identification means internally adopting another person’s values, attitudes, and behaviors. The consequence is that the boy takes on the male gender role, and adopts an ego ideal and values that become the superego.
Freud (1909) offered the Little Hans case study as evidence of the Oedipus complex.
Electra Complex
The Electra Complex, a component of Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, posits that during the phallic stage of psychosexual development (roughly between ages 3-6), a girl unconsciously cultivates a sexual attraction towards her father, viewing her mother as a competitor.
In essence, the girl covets her father, yet recognizes that she lacks a penis, leading to the phenomenon Freud labeled as ‘penis envy‘ and a subsequent wish to be male.
This girl then ostensibly resolves her dilemma by repressing her desire for her father and replacing her yearning for a penis with a longing for a baby.
During this process, the girl purportedly blames her mother for her ‘castrated state,’ generating significant tension.
In order to alleviate this tension, she then represses her feelings and begins to identify with her mother, thereby adopting a traditional female gender role.
However, it’s important to note that these theories have been widely contested and aren’t broadly accepted in contemporary psychology.
Oedipus and Electra complexes, concepts in psychoanalysis, describe a child’s unconscious desires and conflicts during the phallic stage of psychosexual development,
Latency Stage (6 Years To Puberty)
The latency stage is the fourth stage of psychosexual development, spanning six years to puberty. The libido is dormant during this stage, and no further psychosexual development occurs (latent means hidden).
In this stage, Freud believed sexual impulses are repressed, leading to a period of relative calm.
During this stage, children’s sexual impulses become suppressed (the libido is dormant), and no further psychosexual development occurs (latent means hidden).
Example
The focus shifts to other pursuits such as education, social relationships, and other skills necessary for successful adult life.
Children focus on developing social and intellectual skills, including school, friendships, and hobbies, instead of on sexual or romantic interests.
Freud thought most sexual impulses are repressed during the latent stage, and sexual energy can be sublimated towards school work, hobbies, and friendships.
Much of the child’s energy is channeled into developing new skills and acquiring new knowledge, and play becomes largely confined to other children of the same gender.
An example of this stage would be a child who engages in hobbies and interests rather than sexual activities.
Latency Stage Fixation
According to Freud, unresolved conflicts or issues during this stage can lead to problems later on, such as difficulty expressing emotions or forming healthy relationships.
For instance, if a child fails to make strong social connections or falls behind academically during this stage, they may struggle with feelings of inadequacy, insecurity, and social isolation in adulthood. If a child fails to make strong social connections – perhaps they struggle to make friends or fit in with their peers – this could impact their social skills and potentially lead to feelings of isolation or inadequacy.
Similarly, if a child falls behind academically during this stage – perhaps struggling with reading, writing, or math skills – they might feel less competent than their peers, leading to insecurity or inadequacy.
This stage ends with the onset of puberty, when sexual urges resurface, and the individual enters the final stage of Freud’s psychosexual development, the Genital Stage.
Genital Stage (Puberty To Adult)
The Genital Stage is the fifth and final phase of Freud’s psychosexual development theory, beginning at puberty and lasting into adulthood.
During this stage, the libido re-emerges after its latent period and is directed towards peers of the other sex, marking the onset of mature adult sexuality. During this stage, individuals start to become sexually mature and begin to explore their sexual feelings and desires more maturely and responsibly.
This period marks the onset of romantic and sexual emotions, leading to the formation of intimate relationships.
Sexual instinct is directed to heterosexual pleasure, rather than self-pleasure, like during the phallic stage.
Example
An example of this stage would be a teenager who begins to experience sexual attraction and begins to explore their sexuality.
As they mature physically, they develop deeper romantic interests and sexual attractions toward others.
These feelings may lead to their first romantic relationship, or perhaps a crush on a peer. The teenager might also learn about sexual education and understand the importance of consent and safe sex
They might experience emotional ups and downs as they navigate these new feelings and relationships. This stage isn’t just about sexual attraction, but also about forming meaningful emotional bonds with others.
Through their experiences, they better understand their own sexual identity and learn how to form mutually satisfying relationships.
It is a time of adolescent sexual experimentation, the successful resolution of which is settling down in a loving one-to-one relationship with another person in our 20s. Genital Stage Fixation
For Freud, the proper outlet of the sexual instinct in adults was through heterosexual intercourse. Fixation and conflict may prevent this with the consequence that sexual perversions may develop
For example, fixation at the oral stage may result in a person gaining sexual pleasure primarily from kissing and oral sex, rather than sexual intercourse.
According to Freud, if individuals have unresolved conflicts or issues during this stage, it can lead to problems such as sexual dysfunction, difficulties forming healthy relationships, or other emotional problems.
Explain Freud’s Structural Model of Personality: Id, Ego, Superego
Freud’s Structural Model of Personality: Id, Ego, Superego
These are three components of the human psyche:
Component Description Principle Role
Id Innate instincts and desires (hunger, sex, aggression) Pleasure Principle Seeks instant gratification without logic or morality
Ego Rational, conscious self Reality Principle Mediates between id and superego, makes realistic decisions
Superego Moral conscience (internalized values) Morality Principle Judges right and wrong, causes guilt
Example:
• The id says, “I want chocolate now!”
• The superego says, “That’s unhealthy and selfish!”
• The ego compromises: “Let’s eat a little after dinner.”
Component,Description,Principle,Develops When,Role in Behavior
Id | Inborn, instinctual drives (hunger, sex, aggression),| Pleasure Principle – wants immediate gratification,| Present from birth,| Demands satisfaction regardless of reality or morality
Ego,Rational part that balances id and superego,Reality Principle – delays gratification, plans actions,Develops around 18 months to 3 years (Anal Stage),Deals with real-world situations and mediates between the id and superego
Superego,Moral conscience (internalized societal rules and values),Morality Principle – seeks perfection,Develops around 5–6 years (Phallic Stage),Judges actions, produces guilt or pride
What is schema
What is assimilation
What is accommodation
What is equilibrium
Disequilibrium
Object permanence
Egocentrism
Centration
Decentration
Conservation
Reversibility
Hypothetical deductive reasoning
Abstract thinking
Symbolic thinking
Sériation
Classification
Moral realism
Moral relativism
Core Concepts in Piaget’s Theory:
Concept Meaning Example
Schema Mental framework A child’s idea of a “dog”
Assimilation Fitting new info into existing schema Calling a cat a “dog”
Accommodation Modifying schema for new info Realizing cats and dogs are different
Equilibration Balancing assimilation & accommodation Leads to learning and growth
Great! You’re asking about the jargons (key concepts or technical terms) in Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory — which is excellent for your psychology exam. Let’s go through each term in simple but detailed explanations, so you can understand and memorize them easily.
Key Jargons in Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
- Schema (plural: Schemas or Schemata)
• Definition: A mental framework or structure that helps a person organize and interpret information.
• Example: A child’s schema for “dog” may include: four legs, fur, barking.
• Importance: As children grow, they constantly build and update schemas to understand the world. - Assimilation
• Definition: Taking in new information and fitting it into an existing schema.
• Example: A child sees a cow and calls it a “dog” because it fits their schema of a four-legged animal.
• Key Idea: The schema stays the same, even if the info is not fully correct. - Accommodation
• Definition: Changing an existing schema or creating a new one to fit new information.
• Example: The child realizes that cows are not dogs and creates a new schema for “cow”.
• Key Idea: The schema is adjusted for better accuracy. - Equilibration
• Definition: The process of balancing assimilation and accommodation to create stable understanding.
• Example: A child uses assimilation when learning something new, then accommodation when it’s confusing, and eventually reaches understanding — equilibrium.
• Importance: This is what drives learning and cognitive growth. - Disequilibrium
• Definition: When new information doesn’t fit into existing schemas — causing confusion or mental imbalance.
• Example: A child sees a penguin and wonders why a “bird” can’t fly — it challenges the existing schema.
• Outcome: This state pushes the child to adapt by accommodation. - Object Permanence
• Definition: The understanding that objects still exist even when they cannot be seen or heard.
• Stage: Sensorimotor stage (0–2 years).
• Example: A baby understands that a toy hidden under a blanket still exists.
• Significance: It’s a major milestone in infant development. - Egocentrism
• Definition: The child’s inability to see things from another person’s perspective.
• Stage: Preoperational stage (2–7 years).
• Example: A child assumes you see what they see, even if you’re facing a different direction.
• Piaget’s Experiment: The “Three Mountain Task” — children describe only what they see, not what another person sees. - Centration
• Definition: Focusing on only one aspect of a situation and ignoring others.
• Stage: Preoperational stage.
• Example: A child thinks a taller glass has more water than a shorter one, even if both have the same amount.
• Related to: Conservation problems. - Conservation
• Definition: Understanding that quantity remains the same even when shape or appearance changes.
• Stage: Concrete operational stage (7–11 years).
• Example: Children now understand that pouring water into a different-shaped container doesn’t change how much there is.
• Types of conservation: Number, volume, mass, length. - Reversibility
• Definition: The understanding that actions can be undone or reversed.
• Stage: Concrete operational stage.
• Example: A child knows that if you pour water back from a tall glass into the original short glass, the amount stays the same. - Decentration
• Definition: The ability to consider multiple aspects of a situation at the same time.
• Stage: Concrete operational stage.
• Example: A child can consider both height and width when judging the amount of liquid in containers. - Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning
• Definition: The ability to think logically about abstract ideas and hypothetical situations.
• Stage: Formal operational stage (12+ years).
• Example: A teenager can solve a problem by forming a hypothesis and testing it systematically. - Abstract Thinking
• Definition: The ability to think beyond concrete, visible things — about concepts like justice, freedom, love.
• Stage: Formal operational stage.
• Example: Understanding the meaning behind a metaphor or analyzing a philosophical idea. - Symbolic Thinking
• Definition: The ability to use symbols or objects to represent something else.
• Stage: Preoperational stage.
• Example: Using a stick as a sword during pretend play, or drawing a picture to represent mommy. - Seriation
• Definition: The ability to arrange objects in a logical order (e.g., size, weight, length).
• Stage: Concrete operational stage.
• Example: Putting sticks in order from shortest to longest. - Classification
• Definition: The ability to group objects based on shared characteristics.
• Stage: Concrete operational stage.
• Example: Grouping animals by type — mammals, reptiles, birds. - Moral Realism (Heteronomous Morality)
• Definition: Belief that rules are fixed and must be obeyed.
• Stage: Early part of development (preoperational).
• Example: Believing breaking one plate is better than breaking two, regardless of intent. - Moral Relativism (Autonomous Morality)
• Definition: Understanding that rules are flexible and based on mutual agreement.
• Stage: Later development (concrete/formal operational).
• Example: Understanding that a child who broke a plate accidentally is not “bad.”
Summary Table (Quick Revision Aid):
Term Simple Meaning Stage
Schema Mental framework All
Assimilation Fit into existing schema All
Accommodation Change schema All
Equilibration Balance of both All
Object Permanence Objects still exist when hidden Sensorimotor
Egocentrism Can’t see others’ views Preoperational
Centration Focus on one aspect Preoperational
Conservation Quantity stays same Concrete
Reversibility Undo an action Concrete
Decentration Consider multiple aspects Concrete
Abstract Thinking Think about ideas Formal
Hypothetical Reasoning Think logically in theory Formal
Symbolic Thinking Use of symbols Preoperational
Seriation Order items Concrete
Classification Group items Concrete
Would you like me to create a printable one-page summary sheet with all these jargons for your revision?
Or should I continue with Vygotsky’s theory jargons next for comparison?
What is perception check?
a. a method teachers use to reward good listeners in the classroom.
b. any factor that gets in the way of good listening and decreases our ability to interpret
correctly.
c. a response that allows you to state your interpretation and ask your partner whether or
not that interpretation is correct.
d. a cognitive bias that makes us listen only to information we already agree with.
How will you know if a micrograph :
is stained by eosin
is stained by hematoxylin
the structures stained are acidophilic
structures stained are basophilic
If basophiloc structures are acidic
Why are they called basophiloc
Correct answer: c. a response that allows you to state your interpretation and ask your partner whether or not that interpretation is correct.
Explanation:
A perception check is a communication tool used to clarify understanding. It helps avoid misunderstandings by confirming whether your interpretation of someone’s words or behavior is accurate.
Examples:
“You seemed quiet today — are you tired, or is something bothering you?”
Great question! To tell how a micrograph is stained and what types of structures are visible, you need to understand how hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining works and how acidophilic vs basophilic structures appear.
Here’s a simple breakdown:
- Hematoxylin stains:
• Color: Blue or purple
• What it stains: Basophilic structures (acidic components like DNA, RNA, ribosomes, nuclei)
• Clue: If the nucleus and RNA-rich areas are dominant and purple/blue → hematoxylin is prominent → basophilic structures dominate - Eosin stains:
• Color: Pink to red
• What it stains: Acidophilic structures (basic components like cytoplasm, proteins, collagen, mitochondria)
• Clue: If the micrograph looks mostly pink or reddish and you see lots of cytoplasm and collagen → eosin is prominent → acidophilic structures dominate
To answer your points:
Statement How to recognize it
I. Most of the micrograph is stained by eosin If the slide looks mostly pink/red, not purple. You’re seeing cytoplasm, collagen, muscle fibers, etc.
II. Most of the micrograph is stained by hematoxylin If the slide looks mostly blue/purple, indicating lots of nuclei, chromatin, ribosomes.
III. Most of the structures stained are acidophilic Structures that took up eosin (pink) are acidophilic.
IV. Most of the structures stained are basophilic Structures that took up hematoxylin (purple/blue) are basophilic.
Summary tip for exams:
Pink = Eosin = Acidophilic Purple/Blue = Hematoxylin = Basophilic
Would you like a small image or flashcard to help you memorize this quickly?
Excellent observation — this is a common point of confusion, but you’re thinking in the right direction!
Here’s the key idea:
“Basophilic” means “affinity for basic dye.”
It doesn’t mean the structure itself is basic — it means it is attracted to a basic (alkaline) dye, like hematoxylin.
So why do acidic structures stain with a basic dye?
Because of basic chemistry: Opposites attract.
• Acidic structures (like DNA, RNA, ribosomes — which have negatively charged phosphate groups) are attracted to basic dyes (which are positively charged, like hematoxylin).
• So these acidic components are called basophilic (they “love” basic dyes).
Likewise:
• Basic structures (like proteins in cytoplasm, collagen) are attracted to acidic dyes (like eosin), so they are called acidophilic (“love acidic dyes”).
Summary:
Structure Charge Dye it attracts Term used
DNA, RNA, nucleus Negative (acidic) Basic dye (hematoxylin) Basophilic
Cytoplasm, proteins Positive (basic) Acidic dye (eosin) Acidophilic
Let me know if you’d like a diagram or flashcard for this — it’s a really helpful one to visualize.
When applied to moral philosophy, empiricism amounts to the claim that everything we
know about right and wrong, good, or bad is based, in some way, on…
a. religion.
b. exposure.
c. culture.
d. experience.
104.The study of human anatomy was banned in Rome in the time of …
a. Hippocrates.
b. Leonardo Da Vinci.
c. Claudius Galen.
d. Paul Versalius.
105.The ____________ module is useful in guiding the development of programs that provide
incentives for consumers to use health services.
a. Health behaviour
b. Community-as-partner
c. Ecological
d. Health belief
Here are the correct answers:
- d. experience.
In moral philosophy, empiricism holds that knowledge of right and wrong is derived from experience, not innate ideas or religious doctrines.
- c. Claudius Galen.
During the time of Galen in ancient Rome, human dissection was largely banned, so he relied mostly on animal dissection, which led to anatomical inaccuracies.
- d. Health belief.
The Health Belief Model (HBM) is used to guide program development by predicting and explaining health behaviors, including the use of incentives to encourage service use.
Would you like more questions like these for exam prep?
Sure! Here’s a clearer look at the possible answers (options) for Questions 103 and 105, along with a brief explanation for why the correct answer is “experience” and “Health belief” respectively.
- When applied to moral philosophy, empiricism amounts to the claim that everything we know about right and wrong, good, or bad is based, in some way, on…
• a. religion – Incorrect. Religion is more aligned with moral absolutism or divine command theory, not empiricism.
• b. exposure – Close, but not precise. Exposure is part of experience, but the key concept in empiricism is direct experience and observation.
• c. culture – Incorrect. Culture plays a role in shaping values, but empiricism emphasizes personal experience, not collective norms.
• d. experience – Correct. Empiricism is based on the belief that knowledge comes from sensory experience, including moral knowledge. - The ____________ module is useful in guiding the development of programs that provide incentives for consumers to use health services.
• a. Health behaviour – Broad term; not a specific theory or model guiding incentive-based programs.
• b. Community-as-partner – A nursing model focused on community assessment, not consumer health behavior incentives.
• c. Ecological – Focuses on multi-level health influences (individual, interpersonal, societal), but not primarily on individual motivations or perceptions.
• d. Health belief – Correct. The Health Belief Model explains why individuals use or don’t use health services, focusing on perceived benefits, barriers, susceptibility, severity, and cues to action.
Would you like MCQs covering other health behavior models too?
106.According to the topographical model of the mind by Sigmund Freud, what analogy did he
use to describe the three levels of the mind?
a. Rock
b. Water
c. Iceberg
d. Air
107.When considering the role of hormones in relation to human diseases, which of the following
will be of least concern to you?
a. Hormone-receptor interaction.
b. Downstream hormone response.
c. Presence of the hormone.
d. Abnormal hormone production.
108.During your histology practical session, you impressed your colleagues by mentioning that,
the objective lens and eyepiece lens have which the following features.
a. resolution
b. real images
c. magnifying power
d. virtual images
109.In social cognition, people attempt to control the impressions other people form of them.
This refers to …
a. Self-control
b. Self-promotion
c. Self-presentation
d. Self-efficacy
110.The branch of physiology that uses computational and mathematical modelling to
understand complex biological networks in the body is …
a. Systems physiology.
b. Evolutionary physiology.
c. Comparative physiology.
d. Cell and molecular physiology.
111.AIDS is a killer. When infected it can kill you in a very short time. There is no known cure.
O’Boy remarks to his friend Koo Tiaa that AIDS is real and dangerous, but it can’t infect
people like him. He is too precious to be infected. This reflects stage 2 of …
a. Theory of Reasoned Action.
b. Stages of Change Theory.
c. Theory of Planned Behaviour.
d. Precaution Adoption Process Model.
112.Which type of illusion is characterized by contrasting colors creating the illusion of motion?
a. The moving illusion
b. The movement illusion
c. The speed illusion
d. Motion illusion
Here are the correct answers with brief explanations for each:
- According to the topographical model of the mind by Sigmund Freud, what analogy did he use to describe the three levels of the mind?
→ c. Iceberg
• Freud compared the mind to an iceberg, with the conscious mind as the visible tip above water, and the preconscious and unconscious below the surface. - When considering the role of hormones in relation to human diseases, which of the following will be of least concern to you?
→ c. Presence of the hormone
• Just the presence of a hormone doesn’t necessarily indicate proper function. Hormone-receptor interaction, downstream effects, and abnormal production are more critical in disease assessment. - During your histology practical session, you impressed your colleagues by mentioning that the objective lens and eyepiece lens have which of the following features?
→ c. magnifying power
• Both lenses are involved in magnifying the image, which is a key feature of microscope functionality. - In social cognition, people attempt to control the impressions other people form of them. This refers to …
→ c. Self-presentation
• Self-presentation is the process of managing how others perceive you, often by adjusting behavior, appearance, or communication. - The branch of physiology that uses computational and mathematical modelling to understand complex biological networks in the body is …
→ a. Systems physiology
• Systems physiology uses mathematical models and simulations to study complex interactions in body systems.
(While it does involve studying interactions between body systems (e.g., cardiovascular and respiratory), modern systems physiology also refers to using computational and mathematical modeling to simulate and analyze complex biological systems (like hormonal feedback loops, neural circuits, gene regulation networks). It’s used in research to understand diseases, predict drug responses, etc. So yes, it’s broader than just system-to-system interaction.) - AIDS is a killer… O’Boy says he is too precious to be infected. This reflects stage 2 of …
→ d. Precaution Adoption Process Model
• In Stage 2 (Aware but not personally engaged), a person recognizes a risk but doesn’t believe it applies to them personally, which is exactly O’Boy’s mindset. - Which type of illusion is characterized by contrasting colors creating the illusion of motion?
→ d. Motion illusion
• Motion illusions are visual illusions where contrasting colors and patterns cause the illusion of movement, even in static images.
Option Explanation
a. Theory of Reasoned Action This theory says behavior is determined by intentions, which are influenced by attitudes and subjective norms (what others expect of you). It’s not about denial or personal risk perception stages.
b. Stages of Change Theory (Transtheoretical Model) This involves stages like Precontemplation, Contemplation, Preparation, Action, Maintenance. Stage 2 here would be Contemplation, but it refers to thinking about behavior change, not denial of risk.
c. Theory of Planned Behaviour Builds on the Theory of Reasoned Action but adds perceived behavioral control. Again, this is about intentions, not risk denial stages.
d. Precaution Adoption Process Model (PAPM) Correct. This model describes how people move from unawareness to taking action.
• Stage 1: Unaware of issue • Stage 2: Aware but not personally engaged — “I know it exists, but it can’t happen to me.” ← O’Boy’s thinking. • Later stages: Deciding to act or not, acting, and maintaining behavior. So, O’Boy is at Stage 2 of the PAPM, because he knows about AIDS but denies personal vulnerability, which is a real-world barrier to prevention.
- Which type of illusion is characterized by contrasting colors creating the illusion of motion?
Option Explanation
a. The moving illusion Not a standard scientific term. A vague phrase that doesn’t describe a specific phenomenon.
b. The movement illusion Also not a standard term in psychology/visual sciences.
c. The speed illusion Refers to a real concept — where motion is perceived to be faster or slower due to background or context. But it doesn’t involve color contrast or still images appearing to move.
d. Motion illusion Correct. Motion illusions are optical illusions where static images seem to move, often due to color contrasts, patterns, and shapes that trick the brain (e.g., rotating snakes illusion or Akiyoshi Kitaoka’s illusions). These play on how the visual system processes contrast and edges.
So, motion illusion is the best fit — it’s a recognized term in visual perception psychology.
Perfect! Here’s a clear and detailed breakdown of the stages for each theory you asked about — so you can easily compare and remember them for your exam.
- Stages of Change Theory (Transtheoretical Model)
This model explains how people change a behavior over time.
Stage Explanation
1. Precontemplation Not aware of the problem or not ready to change. (“I don’t need to change.”)
2. Contemplation Aware there’s a problem and starting to think about change. (“Maybe I should change.”)
3. Preparation Getting ready to change soon — may start making small changes.
4. Action Actively making the change. (“I’ve started.”)
5. Maintenance Trying to keep the new behavior long-term.
6. (Relapse - optional stage) May go back to old behavior. Can return to earlier stages and try again.
- Precaution Adoption Process Model (PAPM)
This is about how people take action against health risks, especially when facing new health information (like diseases or screenings).
Stage Explanation
1. Unaware of the issue Person has never heard of the risk/problem.
2. Unengaged by the issue They know about it but don’t see it as personally relevant.
3. Deciding about acting They are considering whether to take action.
4. Decided not to act They choose not to act.
5. Decided to act They choose to take preventive action.
6. Acting Actually taking action (e.g., screening, vaccination).
7. Maintenance Continuing the behavior if it’s ongoing (e.g., regular checkups).
- Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA)
TRA doesn’t have stages, but focuses on what influences a person’s decision to act:
• Attitude toward the behavior – Do I see this behavior as good or bad?
• Subjective norm – Do people important to me think I should do it?
• → These two factors form intention → which leads to action
There are no stages, but the idea is that if attitude and norms are strong enough, the person will intend to act and then follow through.
- Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB)
Also doesn’t have stages but builds on TRA by adding one more idea:
• Attitude toward the behavior
• Subjective norm
• Perceived behavioral control → Do I believe I’m capable of doing it?
Together, these three influence behavioral intention, which leads to actual behavior.
Quick Recap Chart
Model Stages or Components
Stages of Change Precontemplation → Contemplation → Preparation → Action → Maintenance (→ Relapse)
PAPM Unaware → Unengaged → Deciding → Decided Not to Act / Decided to Act → Acting → Maintenance
TRA Attitude + Subjective Norm → Intention → Behavior
TPB Attitude + Subjective Norm + Perceived Behavioral Control → Intention → Behavior
Would you like me to help you with:
• Mnemonics to remember the stages?
• Flashcards for each stage?
• MCQs for these specific stages only to reinforce them?
Let me know what format will help you memorize them best.
Excellent — practical examples will help you connect theory to real life and remember it better for your exam. Here’s a clear and relatable breakdown of each theory, concept, and its real-world example.
- Stages of Change Theory (Transtheoretical Model)
Stage Practical Example (Smoking Cessation)
Precontemplation Kwame smokes daily and doesn’t think it’s a problem.
Contemplation He begins to think smoking may be harmful after hearing a health talk.
Preparation He buys nicotine patches and reads about how to quit.
Action He stops smoking and starts using patches.
Maintenance He’s been smoke-free for 6 months and avoids triggers.
Relapse (optional) He smokes again under stress but decides to restart his quit plan.
Other examples:
• Weight loss journey
• Alcohol or drug recovery
• Adopting exercise routines
- Precaution Adoption Process Model (PAPM)
Stage Practical Example (Breast Cancer Screening – Mammogram)
Unaware Adjoa has never heard about mammograms.
Unengaged She hears about them but doesn’t think she needs it.
Deciding about acting She’s not sure if it’s necessary or safe.
Decided not to act She decides it’s not for her (maybe due to fear or misinformation).
Decided to act She finally decides to book a mammogram.
Acting She goes to the hospital and gets it done.
Maintenance She keeps up with regular screenings every few years.
Other examples:
• COVID-19 vaccination
• Condom use for STIs
• Regular BP checks
- Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA)
Component Practical Example (Using a Mosquito Net)
Attitude toward the behavior “I think using a net will protect me from malaria.”
Subjective norm “My friends and family also use mosquito nets.”
Behavioral intention → behavior “I intend to use it every night, and I do.”
Other examples:
• Choosing to eat healthy
• Voting in elections
• Donating blood
- Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB)
Component Practical Example (Joining a Fitness Program)
Attitude toward the behavior “Exercise is good for my health.”
Subjective norm “My friends support and encourage me to exercise.”
Perceived behavioral control “I believe I can stick to the routine.”
→ Intention → behavior “I decide to join and actually start going.”
Other examples:
• Starting a small business
• Saving money
• Going back to school
Summary Table for Comparison:
Theory Main Focus Example Summary
Stages of Change Readiness to change Kwame trying to quit smoking
PAPM Awareness to action Adjoa deciding about mammogram
TRA Beliefs and social norms → behavior Using mosquito net because it’s seen as positive and common
TPB Adds perceived control to TRA Joining fitness program because of belief, support, and confidence
Would you like me to now turn these practical examples into MCQs or flashcards for memorization?
Or would you like Christian/religious examples added to each theory to make them more relatable to you?
Define the usefulness and main concepts behind these theories :
Sure! Here are the theory names:
1. Stages of Change Theory (Transtheoretical Model)
2. Precaution Adoption Process Model (PAPM)
3. Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA)
4. Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB)
Perfect — here’s a brief summary of the importance and main concept behind each theory, so you understand why they’re taught and how they apply in real life or health psychology:
- Stages of Change Theory (Transtheoretical Model)
• Main Concept: Behavior change is a process that happens in stages — people don’t change overnight.
• Why it’s important:
• Helps health professionals identify where a person is on their journey (e.g., smoking, diet, exercise).
• Allows for tailored interventions based on stage — not everyone needs the same approach. - Precaution Adoption Process Model (PAPM)
• Main Concept: People move from being unaware of a health risk to taking action step by step.
• Why it’s important:
• Explains why some people don’t take preventive health actions (e.g., screening, vaccines).
• Useful for public health education and awareness campaigns — especially early stages of behavior adoption. - Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA)
• Main Concept: A person’s behavior is determined by their intention, which is shaped by their attitudes and social influences (subjective norms).
• Why it’s important:
• Helps predict behavior in areas like sexual health, diet, smoking, etc.
• Highlights the power of belief systems and peer influence in health choices. - Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB)
• Main Concept: Builds on TRA by adding perceived behavioral control — whether a person feels capable of doing the behavior.
• Why it’s important:
• Acknowledges that even with positive attitude and support, a person needs to believe they can do it.
• Very useful in designing effective behavior change programs (e.g., physical activity, contraceptive use, etc.).
Recap Table:
Theory Main Concept Why It Matters
Stages of Change Behavior change happens in steps Helps tailor intervention to readiness level
PAPM From unawareness to action Explains why some people never act on health risks
TRA Intention is shaped by attitude + social norms Shows how beliefs and peer influence shape behavior
TPB Adds confidence/control to TRA Explains why people may still not act despite good intentions
Let me know if you want a quick mnemonic to help remember them or if you’d like examples related to Christian values or maternal and child health.
114.Acidophilic structures in the cell and extracellular matrix include …
I. Nuclei
II. Mitochondria
III. Ribosomes
IV. Collagen
a. II, III and IV only
b. I and III only
c. I, II and III only
d. II and IV only
115.The objectives of research ethics do NOT include…
a. informed consent.
b. protection of human participants.
c. soundness of analysis.
d. confidentiality.
116.Select the condition, which is NOT anatomical variation among the following.
a. Horseshoe kidney
b. Abdominal kidney
c. Atonic stomach
d. Hypotonic stomach
117.In an emergency situation, people are likely to help in the presence of others when …
a. the emergency is obvious.
b. travelling.
c. they are from different tribes.
d. people are a lot.
118.The health of an individual is influenced by several factors within and outside a person.
Which of the following is an external factor that could influence an individual’s health?
a. Behaviour
b. Knowledge
c. Sex
D. Care
Naming, classification and provision of other details of a characteristic of behaviour is a
___________ goal of Psychology.
a. Controlling
b. Prediction
c. Description
d. Explanation
120.Identify correctly the motivation theory that is based on the principle of homeostasis, the
tendency of the body to maintain a steady internal state:
a. McClelland’s Achievement Need theory.
b. Instinct theory.
c. Needs and Drive theory.
d. Arousal theory.
121.The first thing to establish in negligence is …
a. Damage.
b. Compensation.
c. A duty situation.
d. Breach.
122.The compound that you can smell on the breadth of a patient who isn’t obtaining enough
energy from carbohydrates is …
a. acetate.
b. acetone.
c. acetoacetate.
d. alcohol.
123.What would you need from me to feel okay doing this my way? This is an example of
”……………..” in assertiveness training.
a. arriving at a workable compromise
b. learning how to listen
c. avoiding manipulations
d. writing a script for change
124.I hate drinking alcohol; however I am always encouraging people to drink if they want to and
even go to the extent of buying those drinks. In light of this it can be said that _______________
has occurred.
a. Cognitive deviation
b. Cognitive delirium
c. Cognitive dissonance
d. Cognitive distortion
125.In the critical thinking topic, Dr. Anim did not give one of the following learning objectives:
that by the end of three hours, students should be able to …
a. Mention steps involved in the critical thinking process.
b. Define critical thinking.
c. Master critical thinking skills.
d. Question or assess information presented in any subject.
Here are the correct answers with explanations for each question:
- Acidophilic structures in the cell and extracellular matrix include…
✅ Answer: d. II and IV only
• Acidophilic (eosinophilic) structures stain pink/red with eosin. These structures are usually basic in nature.
• Mitochondria and Collagen fibers are acidophilic.
• Nuclei and Ribosomes are basophilic (they stain blue/purple with hematoxylin because they contain nucleic acids like DNA and RNA). - The objectives of research ethics do NOT include…
✅ Answer: c. soundness of analysis
• Soundness of analysis is a scientific objective, not specifically an ethical objective.
• Ethical objectives focus on:
• Informed consent
• Protection of participants
• Confidentiality - Select the condition, which is NOT an anatomical variation among the following.
✅ Answer: c. Atonic stomach
• Anatomical variations are natural structural differences, not pathological.
• Horseshoe kidney: kidneys fused at lower poles.
• Abdominal kidney: ectopic kidney.
• Hypotonic stomach is also a functional variant, not abnormal shape.
• But Atonic stomach indicates loss of muscle tone, a pathological condition, not a variation. - In an emergency situation, people are likely to help in the presence of others when…
✅ Answer: a. the emergency is obvious
• This relates to the Bystander Effect in psychology.
• People are more likely to help when it’s clear what’s happening and what to do.
• If not obvious, people wait for others to act. - Which of the following is an external factor that could influence an individual’s health?
✅ Answer: d. Care
• Care is an external factor (social support, access to health services).
• Behaviour, knowledge, and sex are internal/personal factors.
Would you like me to turn these into active recall flashcards or MCQs for practice?
Here are the correct answers with brief explanations for each question:
- Naming, classification and provision of other details of a characteristic of behaviour is a ___________ goal of Psychology.
✅ Answer: c. Description
• Description is the first goal of psychology. It involves observing and naming behaviors, collecting facts, and identifying patterns. - Identify correctly the motivation theory that is based on the principle of homeostasis, the tendency of the body to maintain a steady internal state:
✅ Answer: c. Needs and Drive theory
• Drive Theory suggests that biological needs create internal states of tension (drives) that motivate behavior to restore homeostasis. - The first thing to establish in negligence is …
✅ Answer: c. A duty situation
• The first legal element in a negligence claim is proving that a duty of care existed between the parties. - The compound that you can smell on the breath of a patient who isn’t obtaining enough energy from carbohydrates is …
✅ Answer: b. acetone
• Acetone is a ketone body formed during fat metabolism, common in starvation or uncontrolled diabetes (ketoacidosis). - “What would you need from me to feel okay doing this my way?” This is an example of __________ in assertiveness training.
✅ Answer: a. arriving at a workable compromise
• This phrase is part of a communication strategy to reach a mutual agreement while asserting your position respectfully. - I hate drinking alcohol; however, I always encourage others and even buy drinks for them. In light of this it can be said that _______________ has occurred.
✅ Answer: c. Cognitive dissonance
• Cognitive dissonance happens when a person’s actions conflict with their beliefs or attitudes, causing internal tension. - In the critical thinking topic, Dr. Anim did not give one of the following learning objectives:
✅ Answer: c. Master critical thinking skills
• “Mastering” is too ambitious for a typical introductory learning objective, unlike mentioning, defining, or questioning, which are more realistic outcomes.
Would you like these converted into a printable study sheet or practice quiz set?
126.Events which involve extra sensory perception and cannot be verified by a second or third
party is classified as …
a. Pseudo Psychology.
b. Para Psychology.
c. Para Normal Activity.
d. Pseudocyesis.
127.Yaw meets beautiful Adjoa at a party and asks her for her phone number. After he is given the
number, he keeps repeating it to himself until he saves it on his phone. Yaw is employing
_________ rehearsal.
a. Management
b. Confident
c. Elaborative
d. maintenance
128.A mixture of belief and emotion that predisposes a person to respond to other people, objects
and groups in a positive or negative way is known as _________.
a. Attrition
b. Attribute
c. Attention
d. Attitude
129.Goffman points out that how people treat us depends on all of the following EXCEPT …
a. How they think of us.
b. Our behaviour.
c. Their impressions of us.
d. Our private emotions.
130.What aspect of the child’s language is illustrated in the statement: ‘Mama eat rice’.
a. Babbling
b. Two- word utterance
c. Holophrastic speech
d. Telegraphic speech
131.The part of larger public health efforts that focus on the health and well- being of the
community as a whole defines community______ practice.
a. Development
b. Participation
c. Health
d. Nursing
132.The study approach of physiology that takes into consideration the purpose of a phenomenon
is …
a. teleological approach.
b. mechanistic approach.
c. philosophical approach.
d. existential approach.
According to Rogers, what causes congruence?
a. An inherited sense of dignity.
b. Unconditioned stimuli.
c. Conditional acceptance or affection.
d. Unconditional acceptance or affection.
135.Mallam Tutugyagu looks into Osei’s palms and tells him that he is introverted and that he will
become a very notable person in his profession. Mallam Tutugyagu is practicing …
a. Graphology.
b. Psychokinesis.
c. Palmistry.
d. Clairvoyance.
136.The assumption that behaviour is goal directed, and that actions are freely chosen to reach
the goal is the central theme of …
a. Stages of Change Theory.
b. The Theory of Planned Behaviour.
c. Self Regulation Theory.
d. The Theory of Reasoned Action.
137.A middle-aged man had episodes of transient ischemic attack and was rushed to the hospital.
The physician requested for the MRI scan of the man’s brain. The MRI scan of the brain is an
example of …
a. Radiological anatomy
b. Clinical anatomy
c. Comparative anatomy
d. Surface anatomy
138.The production of __________ is an example of the success of recombinant DNA Technology in
the medical field.
a. Insulin
b. Vaccines
c. Proteins
d. All the above options.
139.I remember when I won the 100-meter race at the Schools’ and Colleges’ sports festival when
I was in my final year in secondary school. I received a lot of cheers. It was a great moment
for me. This is an example of ______ memory?
a. Semantic
b. Procedural
c. Iconic
d. Episodic
Here are the correct answers for questions 126–132, with brief explanations to help you understand and remember them better:
- Events which involve extra sensory perception and cannot be verified by a second or third party is classified as …
✅ Answer: b. Para Psychology
• Parapsychology deals with psychic phenomena like ESP, telepathy, clairvoyance—unscientific but studied by some under psychology. - Yaw meets beautiful Adjoa at a party and asks her for her phone number. After he is given the number, he keeps repeating it to himself until he saves it on his phone. Yaw is employing __________ rehearsal.
✅ Answer: d. Maintenance
• Maintenance rehearsal involves repetition of information to keep it in short-term memory, unlike elaborative rehearsal, which links new info with existing knowledge. - A mixture of belief and emotion that predisposes a person to respond to other people, objects and groups in a positive or negative way is known as _________.
✅ Answer: d. Attitude
• Attitude includes our thoughts, feelings, and actions toward people or situations, shaped by experiences, beliefs, and emotions. - Goffman points out that how people treat us depends on all of the following EXCEPT …
✅ Answer: d. Our private emotions
• According to Erving Goffman’s Dramaturgical Theory, people react based on what they observe about us, not our hidden/internal feelings. - What aspect of the child’s language is illustrated in the statement: ‘Mama eat rice’.
✅ Answer: d. Telegraphic speech
• Telegraphic speech is a stage in child language development, where sentences omit less critical words but convey meaning (like a telegram). - The part of larger public health efforts that focus on the health and well-being of the community as a whole defines community ________ practice.
✅ Answer: d. Nursing
• Community nursing focuses on preventive care, education, and health promotion for populations rather than just individuals.
I doubt this is the answer
I’m thinking it’s community health so check. - The study approach of physiology that takes into consideration the purpose of a phenomenon is …
✅ Answer: a. Teleological approach
• Teleological approach explains why a process happens (its purpose), whereas mechanistic approach explains how it happens (the steps involved).
Would you like me to create more MCQs or a summary sheet with all the key concepts covered so far?
Sure! Here’s a clear explanation of all the possible answers for questions 127 and 130, so you can better understand why one is correct and the others are not.
- Yaw meets beautiful Adjoa at a party and asks her for her phone number. After he is given the number, he keeps repeating it to himself until he saves it on his phone. Yaw is employing __________ rehearsal.
a. Management
• This is not a type of rehearsal in memory processes. It generally refers to organizing or controlling something, not storing information.
b. Confident
• Not related to memory at all. “Confident” describes a personality trait or state of self-assurance—not a method for retaining information.
c. Elaborative
• Elaborative rehearsal involves linking new information with existing knowledge, like connecting the phone number to a birthday or familiar pattern. It’s deeper processing for long-term memory, but that’s not what Yaw is doing here.
d. Maintenance → Correct Answer
• Maintenance rehearsal is simple repetition to keep information active in short-term memory. Yaw keeps repeating the number until he stores it—classic maintenance rehearsal.
- What aspect of the child’s language is illustrated in the statement: ‘Mama eat rice’.
a. Babbling
• Babbling occurs before real words, usually between 4 to 9 months, and consists of sounds like “ba-ba,” “da-da.” It’s not actual speech with meaning yet, so “Mama eat rice” is beyond this stage.
b. Two-word utterance
• Two-word stage usually happens around 18–24 months, like “Mama eat” or “baby cry.” But “Mama eat rice” has three words, so it’s not just two-word utterance anymore.
c. Holophrastic speech
• In this stage, a child uses one word to represent a full idea (e.g., saying “Milk!” to mean “I want milk”). It comes before multi-word sentences. Again, “Mama eat rice” is beyond this stage.
d. Telegraphic speech → Correct Answer
• Telegraphic speech happens around 2–3 years, where children use short, essential words, like a telegram (e.g., “Mama eat rice,” “Daddy go work”). It’s grammatically incomplete but meaningful.
Would you like me to give examples or visuals for each speech stage or how to recognize them easily in children?
Here are the correct answers along with explanations for each question (134–139):
- According to Rogers, what causes congruence?
Correct answer: d. Unconditional acceptance or affection.
• Explanation:
Carl Rogers (Humanistic psychologist) believed that congruence—a state where your self-image matches your actual experience—is fostered by unconditional positive regard (love or acceptance without conditions). When individuals feel accepted regardless of their behavior, they are more likely to accept themselves and achieve personal growth.
• Other options:
• a. Inherited sense of dignity → Not part of Rogers’ theory.
• b. Unconditioned stimuli → A term from classical conditioning, not Rogers.
• c. Conditional acceptance or affection → Leads to incongruence, not congruence.
- Mallam Tutugyagu looks into Osei’s palms and tells him that he is introverted and that he will become a very notable person in his profession. Mallam Tutugyagu is practicing…
Correct answer: c. Palmistry.
• Explanation:
Palmistry is the practice of interpreting lines and shapes on a person’s palm to tell their personality or future. It’s a form of pseudoscience, not based on scientific evidence.
• Other options:
• a. Graphology → Analysis of handwriting.
• b. Psychokinesis → Ability to move objects with the mind.
• d. Clairvoyance → Claim of gaining information beyond normal sensory input.
- The assumption that behaviour is goal directed, and that actions are freely chosen to reach the goal is the central theme of…
Correct answer: d. The Theory of Reasoned Action.
• Explanation:
The Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) proposes that people’s behavior is driven by their intention, which results from their attitude toward the behavior and subjective norms. It assumes free will and goal-directed behavior.
• Other options:
• a. Stages of Change Theory → Focuses on behavior change over time.
• b. Theory of Planned Behaviour → Adds perceived control to TRA.
• c. Self-Regulation Theory → Focuses on self-monitoring and adjusting behavior.
- A middle-aged man had episodes of transient ischemic attack and was rushed to the hospital. The physician requested for the MRI scan of the man’s brain. The MRI scan of the brain is an example of…
Correct answer: b. Clinical anatomy.
• Explanation:
Clinical anatomy is the practical application of anatomical knowledge in diagnosing and treating patients, like using an MRI to assess brain conditions.
• Other options:
• a. Radiological anatomy → Deals with imaging techniques, but clinical anatomy is the broader and more appropriate term here. CORRECT ANSWER
• c. Comparative anatomy → Study of similarities/differences between species.
• d. Surface anatomy → Study of external features.
- The production of __________ is an example of the success of recombinant DNA Technology in the medical field.
Correct answer: d. All the above options.
• Explanation:
• Insulin (human insulin via genetically engineered bacteria),
• Vaccines (e.g., hepatitis B vaccine),
• Proteins (e.g., growth hormones, clotting factors) — all are products of recombinant DNA technology. CONFIRM
- “I remember when I won the 100-meter race…” This is an example of ______ memory?
Correct answer: d. Episodic.
• Explanation:
Episodic memory is memory of specific events and experiences in your life, including time, place, and emotions attached.
• Other options:
• a. Semantic → Memory of facts and concepts (e.g., “Paris is the capital of France”).
• b. Procedural → Memory of how to do things (e.g., riding a bike).
• c. Iconic → Visual sensory memory that lasts only a few seconds.
Let me know if you’d like a summary list or visual flashcards for easy memorization!
More about Carl Roger’s theory
And Abraham Maslow theory apart from his theory of needs
Great! Here’s a deeper look into Carl Rogers’ theory and Abraham Maslow’s contributions (beyond just his hierarchy of needs):
Carl Rogers’ Theory – Humanistic Approach (Person-Centered Theory)
Main Concept:
Rogers believed that every individual has a natural drive toward growth and fulfillment, called self-actualization. He emphasized personal experience, subjective perception, and the importance of the self-concept.
Key Concepts:
1. Self-Concept:
• How you view yourself (who you are, how you think others see you).
• Composed of:
• Real self (who you truly are)
• Ideal self (who you want to be)
2. Congruence vs Incongruence:
• Congruence = When real self and ideal self match closely.
• Incongruence = Mismatch between real and ideal self, leading to anxiety or low self-esteem.
3. Unconditional Positive Regard:
• Acceptance and love without conditions.
• Important for healthy self-concept and congruence.
4. Conditions of Worth:
• When people feel accepted only if they meet certain conditions (e.g., “You’re good only if you score high”), they develop incongruence.
5. Fully Functioning Person:
• Open to experience, lives in the moment, trusts own decisions, and continues personal growth.
Why It’s Important:
• Shifts psychology from focusing on illness to potential, growth, and well-being.
• Emphasizes empathy and genuine human interaction (widely used in counseling and therapy today).
Abraham Maslow – Beyond Hierarchy of Needs
Though he is most known for the Hierarchy of Needs, Maslow contributed more to Humanistic Psychology.
Key Ideas (Beyond the Pyramid):
1. Self-Actualization in Depth:
• Not just a level to reach, but a way of life—being creative, authentic, spontaneous, and purpose-driven.
• Self-actualized people are:
• Problem-centered, not self-centered
• Realistic and ethical
• Accept themselves and others
• Have peak experiences (deep spiritual/joyful moments)
2. Peak Experiences:
• Moments of extreme joy, creativity, inspiration, or connection.
• These moments give life deep meaning and help in spiritual growth.
3. Metamotivation:
• Motivation beyond basic needs.
• Drives like truth, beauty, justice, wholeness, meaning (called B-values).
• Different from deficiency needs (food, safety, love, etc.).
4. Transcendence (Later Addition to His Theory):
• Going beyond personal self-actualization to serve others or connect with something greater (e.g., God, nature, humanity).
Why It’s Important:
• Maslow emphasized positive human potential, not pathology.
• His ideas shaped positive psychology, education, counseling, and even leadership training.
Summary Table:
Aspect Carl Rogers Abraham Maslow
Key Focus Self-concept, congruence, growth Needs hierarchy, self-actualization
Main Drive
In the 1950 Willowbrook Hepatitis Study…
a. new admissions were closed.
b. children were not deliberately exposed to hepatitis viruses.
c. researchers obtained consent from the parents.
d. approval was given by the committee in charge.
212.The yellow bile fluid in the theory of body fluid by Hippocrates originates from …
a. spleen.
b. liver.
c. heart.
d. brain.
213.The largest lymphatic vessels are the …
a. collecting duct
b. lymphatic trunk
c. lymphatic capillaries
d. collecting vessels
214.The poem “Go and meet your people, live and stay with them, love them, work with them.
Begin with what they have, plan and develop from what they know, and in the end, when the
work is over, they will say: “we did it ourselves” is accredited to, …
a. Froid.
b. Lao Tzu.
c. Oakley.
d. Denn
Here are the correct answers and brief explanations for each:
- In the 1950 Willowbrook Hepatitis Study…
Correct answer: c. researchers obtained consent from the parents.
• In the controversial Willowbrook study, researchers did obtain consent from the parents, but it was criticized for being unethical because the consent was often coerced, and children were deliberately infected with hepatitis.
• Option a is false – new admissions were not closed.
• Option b is false – children were deliberately exposed.
• Option d – there’s no clear evidence that proper ethical committee approval was in place as per modern standards.
- The yellow bile fluid in the theory of body fluid by Hippocrates originates from…
Correct answer: b. liver
• According to the four humors theory:
• Blood – Heart
• Phlegm – Brain/Lungs
• Black bile – Spleen
• Yellow bile – Liver
Personality Type,Key Traits,Associated Humor,Organ
Choleric,Bold, leader, goal-driven, hot-tempered,Yellow Bile,Liver
Sanguine,Cheerful, sociable, lively, talkative,Blood,Heart
Melancholic,Thoughtful, sensitive, perfectionist,Black Bile,Spleen
Phlegmatic,Calm, dependable, peaceful, quiet,Phlegm,Brain/Lungs
- The largest lymphatic vessels are the…
Correct answer: a. collecting duct (lymphatic ducts)
• The thoracic duct and right lymphatic duct are the largest lymphatic vessels.
• Other options:
• Lymphatic trunks – medium-sized vessels before ducts.
• Capillaries and collecting vessels are smaller structures.
- The poem “Go and meet your people… they will say: ‘we did it ourselves’” is accredited to…
Correct answer: b. Lao Tzu
• This quote reflects Lao Tzu’s leadership philosophy, which emphasizes servant leadership, community empowerment, and starting with what the people have to achieve sustainable development.
Would you like a summarized cheat sheet for quick review?
Indicate the option that is NOT a physical stress reduction method.
a. Learning
b. Gardening
c. Skipping
d. Walking
205.Which of the following bony surface marking is used for articulation?
a. Crest
b. Spine
c. Facet
d. Tuberosity
206.Which of the following rights is NOT provided for under the Patients Charter?
a. The right of a patient to determine which ward to be placed at.
b. The right of a patient to know of alternate treatments for their medical condition.
c. The right of a patient to be involved in decisions on their treatment, where applicable.
d. The right of a patient to be informed of alternate facilities offering similar health care
services.
207.Which of the following is NOT an example of a duty situation in negligence?
a. Doctor – patient.
b. Radiologist – patient.
c. Lecturer – student.
d. Driver – student.
208.Agbaa Kakalika likes “abonsam taawa”. Its primary effect is to increase dopamine and
norepinephrine levels in the brain. “Abonsam taawa” is …
a. Heroin.
b. Marijuana.
c. Cocaine.
d. Ecstasy.
209.I take a keen interest in soccer. In the course of a match, all my attention is on the game. My
team however lost 4-1 to the opposing team. After the game, I envision how my team won the
match 3-0. This is an example of …
a. Flowing Consciousness.
b. Trance.
c. Directed Consciousness.
d. Daydreaming.
210.Which gland in your body starts the stress response?
a. Lymph gland
b. All of the the other options
c. Thyroid gland
d. Pituitary gland
197.In what year was the Universal Declaration of Human Rights was made?
a. 1941
b. 1984
c. 1914
d. 1948
198.Agya Koo Nimo, a celebrated musician and promoter of traditional folklore music recently
gave a talk at UCC. After the talk, people seated at the front rose to their feet and gave a
thunderous applause; soon the whole auditorium was giving him a standing ovation. This is
an example of …
a. Control.
b. Compliance.
c. Conformity.
d. Communality.
199.When Burger Cooper Lee set of to visit his girlfriend he met an old school mate who had
become a neurosurgeon, as he waved goodbye to his friend he kept thinking about how good
it would feel to be a doctor and also how he was going to enjoy his day with his girlfriend. He
kept thinking about these throughout his journey. This demonstrates …
a. Divided Consciousness.
b. Daydreaming.
c. Flowing Consciousness.
d. Directed Consciousness.
200.Which of following persons do the Directive Principles of State Policy NOT apply to?
a. Political Parties.
b. Development partners.
c. Judiciary.
d. Cabinet.
201.One advantage of a person who uses the passive style of interpersonal relationship is that…..
a. people do not push the passive person around.
b. he rarely experience direct rejection.
c. he steps on people without regard for their feelings.
d. he is taken advantage of.
202.The processes involved in establishing contact with the community are described as the
community _________ processes.
a. Entry
b. Participatory
c. Dialogue
d. Negotiation
203.When we do an intellectual argument, we are best doing one of the following:
a. Analysing
b. Evaluating
c. Applying
d. Reasoning
Explain the possible answers too
Here’s a full breakdown of the questions and possible answers with explanations for each choice:
- Indicate the option that is NOT a physical stress reduction method.
Correct answer: a. Learning
• Learning is a cognitive activity, not a physical stress-reduction technique.
• Gardening, Skipping, Walking all involve physical movement that helps relieve stress physically.
- Which of the following bony surface markings is used for articulation?
Correct answer: c. Facet
• Facet: A smooth, flat surface where bones meet (articulate), e.g., vertebrae.
• Crest: A prominent ridge (muscle attachment).
• Spine: A sharp projection (muscle/ligament attachment).
• Tuberosity: A roughened area for muscle attachment.
- Which of the following rights is NOT provided for under the Patients Charter?
Correct answer: a. The right of a patient to determine which ward to be placed at.
• Patients don’t have the right to choose their ward, but they do have rights to information and involvement in care decisions (b, c, d).
- Which of the following is NOT an example of a duty situation in negligence?
Correct answer: c. Lecturer – student. WRONG. It’s driver student
• Doctor-patient, Radiologist-patient, Driver-student have legal duty of care.
• A lecturer is not generally legally responsible for a student’s safety in the same direct care context.
- “Abonsam taawa”… increases dopamine and norepinephrine.
Correct answer: c. Cocaine
• Cocaine is a stimulant that boosts dopamine and norepinephrine levels, leading to alertness and euphoria.
• Heroin (a depressant), Marijuana (cannabinoid), Ecstasy (also affects serotonin more).
- I envision how my team won after losing – this is an example of …
Correct answer: d. Daydreaming
• Daydreaming is a form of spontaneous, internal, imaginary thinking detached from present reality.
- Which gland starts the stress response?
Correct answer: d. Pituitary gland
• The hypothalamus signals the pituitary gland, which releases hormones that activate adrenal glands.
• Thyroid gland regulates metabolism, not stress initiation.
• Lymph glands handle immune function.
- In what year was the Universal Declaration of Human Rights made?
Correct answer: d. 1948
- Standing ovation – this is an example of …
Correct answer: c. Conformity
• Conformity is copying others’ behavior to fit in (e.g., others clapping, so you clap too).
• Compliance is following direct requests.
• Control and communality are less relevant here.
- Thinking about doctorhood and girlfriend during journey – demonstrates …
Correct answer: c. Flowing Consciousness (CONFIRM IT)
• Flowing consciousness is a stream of thoughts moving fluidly from one topic to another.
• Directed consciousness is focused attention on one thing.
• Divided consciousness means split attention (e.g., multitasking).
- Directive Principles of State Policy do NOT apply to:
Correct answer: b. Development partners
• These principles guide state institutions, not external partners. They apply to cabinet, judiciary, and political parties.
- Advantage of passive interpersonal style is…
Correct answer: b. He rarely experiences direct rejection
• Passive people avoid conflict, so others may not confront them directly (but this is not always healthy).
• Option d is a disadvantage.
• Option a is incorrect — passive people can be pushed around.
- Processes in establishing contact with the community are called…
Correct answer: a. Entry
• Community entry is the initial step in engaging a community — introducing yourself, building rapport.
- In intellectual argument, we are best doing one of the following:
Correct answer: d. Reasoning
• Reasoning means constructing and analyzing logical arguments, which is central to intellectual discourse.
• Analyzing and Evaluating are part of reasoning but not the core.
• Applying is more about using knowledge than arguing.
How to know which bony surface marking is used for:
Articulation, Attachment, or Other Purposes
You can categorize bony markings based on their function:
Function Surface Marking Term Example Tip to Remember
Articulation (joint formation) Facet, Condyle, Head, Trochlea Facet of vertebrae, Head of femur Smooth, rounded areas that form joints.
Muscle/Ligament/Tendon attachment Crest, Spine, Tuberosity, Tubercle, Line, Epicondyle Tibial tuberosity, Iliac crest Usually raised, rough areas where tendons attach.
Passage of nerves/vessels Foramen, Fissure, Canal, Groove, Notch Foramen magnum, Optic canal Openings or depressions. Think of them as “tunnels.”
Depressions or Cavities Fossa, Sulcus Olecranon fossa, Intertubercular sulcus Shallow areas, often accommodate structures.
So just remember:
• Smooth and round = articulation
• Rough and raised = attachment
• Holes and grooves = passage of vessels/nerves
Sure! Here’s a quick summary of marijuana and its effects:
Marijuana (Cannabis) Summary:
• Contains cannabinoids — mainly THC (causes the “high”) and CBD (calming, non-psychoactive).
THC Effects:
• Alters mood and perception
• Causes relaxation or anxiety
• Impairs memory and coordination
• Increases appetite
• Can cause red eyes and dry mouth
CBD Effects:
• Reduces pain, anxiety, and inflammation
• No “high” feeling
Let me know if you want this in flashcard form too!
Which type of illusion uses colors to trick the eye?
a. The moving illusion
b. The melting illusion
c. The molding illusion
d. The watercolor illusion.
191.They say humans could die from exposure to mosquito sprays. Is that really true? How could
we check on that point? In acquiring universal intellectual standards, this is a question of…
a. Clarity
b. Precision
c. Accuracy
d. Relevance
192.Which of the following is an example of the Piagetian term conservation?
a. Cynthia understands that three oranges represent a different quantity than four apples.
b. Abigail understands her brother is trying to fool her by giving her taller glass of Alvaro
and that his shorter, wider glass actually has more.
c. Janet is looking at a couple of different possibilities for how to fix her broken chair.
d. Dorothy mentally retraces the steps she took to solve the maths problem.
193.The following are negative faculties of the mind EXCEPT …
a. Prejudice
b. Suspicion
c. Disbelief
d. Judging
194.According to the ________, before people take action they must first believe that the relative
benefits of the precaution outweighs its cost, and that people who do not act at one point in
time may act at another time because variables that influence action fluctuate.
a. Precaution Adoption Process Model
b. Health Belief Model
c. Theory of Reasoned Action
d. Self Regulation Theory
195.Identify the two theories of mind as developed by Sigmund Freud
a. Structural and Topographic
b. Conscious and Unconscious
c. Sensorimotor and Formal
d. Concrete operations and Preoperational
196.The father of microscopy is …
a. Robert Hook
b. Carl Zeiss
c. Antony van Leeuwenhoek
d. Zacharrias Janssen
Sure! Here’s a detailed explanation of the other possible answers for each question you asked:
- Identify the two theories of mind developed by Sigmund Freud
Correct: a. Structural and Topographic
Other options:
• b. Conscious and Unconscious → This is partially correct, but “conscious and unconscious” are components of the Topographic Theory, not a full theory on their own.
• c. Sensorimotor and Formal → These are Piaget’s cognitive development stages, not Freud’s.
• d. Concrete operations and Preoperational → Again, these are also Piaget’s stages, not related to Freud.
- The following are negative faculties of the mind EXCEPT:
Correct: d. Judging
Other options:
• a. Prejudice → This is a negative bias that distorts fair judgment.
• b. Suspicion → While sometimes useful, it often implies distrust or negativity without evidence.
• c. Disbelief → Persistent disbelief, especially in helpful or rational ideas, can block learning or openness.
• d. Judging → This is not necessarily negative. It’s a neutral mental activity and can be used positively for decision-making or reasoning.
- “…Is that really true? How could we check on that point?” — This is a question of:
Correct: c. Accuracy
Other options:
• a. Clarity → This refers to how clearly an idea is stated, not whether it is true or correct.
• b. Precision → This focuses on specific details or exactness, not truthfulness.
• d. Relevance → This asks how related an idea is to the topic, not whether it’s true.
- Which type of illusion uses colors to trick the eye?
Correct: d. The watercolor illusion
Other options:
• a. The moving illusion → These illusions trick the eye into perceiving motion when nothing is moving; usually based on patterns, not colors specifically.
• b. The melting illusion → Not a standard term in optical illusions; might be a misdirect or a fabricated option.
• c. The molding illusion → Also not a recognized type of visual illusion in optical studies.
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Here are the correct answers with brief explanations:
- Which type of illusion uses colors to trick the eye?
→ d. The watercolor illusion
• The watercolor illusion uses colored lines and shading to create the effect of a colored area, tricking the eye into seeing color spread where it doesn’t actually exist. - They say humans could die from exposure to mosquito sprays. Is that really true? How could we check on that point? In acquiring universal intellectual standards, this is a question of…
→ c. Accuracy
• Accuracy refers to whether something is true or correct. This question is about checking if a statement is factually accurate. - Which of the following is an example of the Piagetian term conservation?
→ b. Abigail understands her brother is trying to fool her by giving her taller glass of Alvaro and that his shorter, wider glass actually has more.
• Conservation in Piaget’s theory is understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or appearance. - The following are negative faculties of the mind EXCEPT …
→ d. Judging
• While prejudice, suspicion, and disbelief are generally negative or limiting, judging (in the context of critical thinking) can be a neutral or even positive evaluative process. - According to the ________, before people take action they must first believe that the relative benefits of the precaution outweigh its cost, and that people who do not act at one point in time may act at another time because variables that influence action fluctuate.
→ a. Precaution Adoption Process Model
• This model explains how people decide to adopt a new health behavior, emphasizing that people go through stages and may delay action depending on perceived risks and benefits. - Identify the two theories of mind as developed by Sigmund Freud
→ a. Structural and Topographic
• Structural theory: id, ego, superego
• Topographic theory: conscious, preconscious, unconscious - The father of microscopy is …
→ c. Antony van Leeuwenhoek
• He is known for making powerful microscopes and being the first to observe microorganisms.
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