Self Perception And Embarassment And Personal And Professional Development And Stress Flashcards

Question

What is The goal of personal efficiency What are the assessment tools used in personal development Note: The Success Factors Scale, areas measured • Assertiveness- intimidated or intimidating? • Cohesiveness-how well do you work with others? • Communication skills- can you communicate your thoughts effectively? • Coping with pressure- are you able to handle the heat in the environment? • Integrity- are you a person of your word? • Leadership- do you possess boardroom characteristics? • Maturity- can you deal with criticisms and failure? • Mental toughness- do you consistently perform well under adverse conditions? • Motivation-are you a self-starter? • Passion- is your work ethic where it should be? • Receptiveness to new things- do you adapt well to change? • Rehabilitation from illness/injury- how effectively do you deal with illness/injury?

Answer 1

The goal of personal efficiency is • to know yourself inside -out. The Greek sages admonished, man, know thyself. • To liberate the self from "inside systems", such as emotion and thought, as well as from "outside systems", such as social roles and models (traditions, customs, beliefs, status quo). Assessment tools • Are devices or activities- such as charts, reports, or brainstorming sessions, that help in monitoring the effectiveness of a self-improvement programme. • Tests, inventories, and scales are used.

Answer 2

Difference Between Impression Management and Self-Deception 1. Impression Management – This is the conscious effort to control how others perceive us. People adjust their behavior, appearance, or expressions to create a favorable impression. Example: A doctor maintaining a confident demeanor even if they feel uncertain. 2. Self-Deception – This happens when someone unconsciously convinces themselves of something that may not be true to maintain a positive self-image. Unconsciously convincing oneself of a false reality to protect self-esteem (e.g., blaming failure on bad luck). Example: A student who fails an exam but convinces themselves they didn’t need to study. Key Difference: Impression management is about influencing others’ perceptions, while self-deception is about one’s own perception of reality. What is Social Cognition? Social cognition is the study of how people process, store, and apply information about others and social situations. Social cognition is how we process, store, and interpret social information to understand and interact with others. It involves: • Perception (how we interpret people’s actions), • Judgment (how we evaluate others), and • Decision-making (how we act in social settings). Example: If a patient hesitates before speaking, a doctor might interpret it as nervousness and adjust their approach accordingly.

Answer 3

Response to a situation that a peron perceives to be overwhelming in that the person des not think he or she Can meet the demands of the situation. Stress in itself is not bad. Definitions of Stress 1. A response (e.g. physiological response) to something in the environment 2. A stimulus (stressor) in the environment 3. A lack of fit between perceived demands and perceived ability to cope with these demands this is the definition most often used by psychologists and called the transactional approach So when there’s a stress or challenge. You first do a primary appraisal to see if it’s a stressor. If not, you won’t be stressed If yes, you do a secondary appraisal by asking yourself if you can handle it. If not, you’ll be stressed and lt becomes a threat. If you can handle it, you won’t be stressed so it becomes a challenge you have to overcome.

Answer 4

1. Eustress (positive stress); it occurs in response to situations that bring about positive emotions but are still unsettling 2. Distress(negative stress) : acute (episodic negative stress) and chronic stress (toxic negative stress). Distress occurs in response to dangerous situations that elicit fight or flight mode. Chronic distress is stress that occurs for more than 21days in response to situations in our daily lives. We have internal and external stress(idk where these fall in psychology though) Internal stress include ; Tensile stress →＞ Torsional stress - Bending stress → Shear stress → Compressive stress Eustress properties: it • Motivates and focuses energy, • Is short-term, • Is perceived as being within a person's coping abilities, • Feels exciting, • Improves performance. • On the contrary, distress or bad stress, has the following characteristics: it • Causes anxiety, worry or concern, • Can be short or long-term, • Is perceived as outside of a person's coping abilities, • Feels unpleasant, • Decreases performance, and • Can result in mental, emotional, behavioral, spiritual, physical, social, and medical problems.

Answer 5

These types of internal stress are originally mechanical concepts, but they can be applied metaphorically in psychology to describe different forms of mental and emotional strain: 1. Tensile Stress (Stretching) → Feeling pulled in multiple directions, like balancing work, studies, and personal life. 2. Torsional Stress (Twisting) → Inner conflict, such as struggling between personal beliefs and social expectations. 3. Bending Stress (Flexing under pressure) → Adapting to challenges but feeling the strain, like burnout from overwork. 4. Shear Stress (Sliding in opposite directions) → Emotional strain from clashing responsibilities or relationships. 5. Compressive Stress (Pressing down) → Feeling overwhelmed by external pressures, such as deadlines or social expectations. In psychology, these stresses symbolize different ways people experience mental and emotional strain, affecting their well-being. Difference Between Internal and External Stress • Internal Stress → Comes from within the individual, often due to personal thoughts, emotions, or conflicts. • Example: Self-doubt, overthinking, perfectionism, or fear of failure. • External Stress → Comes from outside sources, such as the environment, social interactions, or life events. • Example: Work deadlines, financial issues, relationship conflicts, or societal expectations. Key Difference: Internal stress is self-generated, while external stress is caused by outside factors.

Answer 6

Effects of bad stress * At this point, stress produces bad outcome: • Decision making • Loss of control of the situation- A sense of control is a stress buffer for leaders, and when they feel a loss of it in a crisis, they can react by becoming rigid and trying to control the crisis response on their own. * Isolation- Stress can cause abruptness, irritability, and impatience with other people. This negatively affects professional relationships, • Sleep deprivation-- Lack of sleep affects people physically and mentally, making it difficult to perform at their best. * Negative mood-- Research shows that people want leaders with a calm demeanor and positive outlook. Unmanaged stress can lead to displays of negative emotions such as anger and irritability. Although crises can seem overwhelming, it is possible to learn to cope with and lead through the circumstances. Techniques can help leaders manage their stress while managing high-pressure situations * Recognize the physical warning signs of stress- Everyone has different physical reactions to stress, such as stiff muscles, a headache, teeth grinding, and stomachaches. Pay attention to the physical symptoms to recognize stress. The physical signs are reminders to take time out for self-care. See Mark 6:31.

Answer 7

Effects of bad stress * At this point, stress produces bad outcome: • Decision making • Loss of control of the situation- A sense of control is a stress buffer for leaders, and when they feel a loss of it in a crisis, they can react by becoming rigid and trying to control the crisis response on their own. * Isolation- Stress can cause abruptness, irritability, and impatience with other people. This negatively affects professional relationships, • Sleep deprivation-- Lack of sleep affects people physically and mentally, making it difficult to perform at their best. * Negative mood-- Research shows that people want leaders with a calm demeanor and positive outlook. Unmanaged stress can lead to displays of negative emotions such as anger and irritability. Although crises can seem overwhelming, it is possible to learn to cope with and lead through the circumstances. Techniques can help leaders manage their stress while managing high-pressure situations * Recognize the physical warning signs of stress- Everyone has different physical reactions to stress, such as stiff muscles, a headache, teeth grinding, and stomachaches. Pay attention to the physical symptoms to recognize stress. The physical signs are reminders to take time out for self-care. See Mark 6:31.

Answer 8

Mindfulness- practice of purposely bringing one's attention in the present moment without evaluation, a skill one develops through meditation or other training • Music -listen or play music in order to reduce stress, and many of the psychological and physical manifestations associated with stress. It is an example of emotion-focused, adaptive coping strategy. Rather than focusing on the stressor itself, music, music therapy reduces or eliminates the emotions that arise in response to stress. It lowers stress levels in patients and lowers biologically measurable quantities like levels of epinephrine and cortisol. Music therapy reduces anxiety and depression symptoms in the long run. • Deep breathing- diaphragmatic breathing or deep breathing is done by contracting the diaphragm, a muscle located horizontally between the thoracic and abdominal cavities. The belly expands to make room for the diaphragm to contract • Yoga Nidra or yogic sleep- is a state of consciousness between waking and sleeping, like the going to sleep stage typically induced by a guided meditation. This is an ancient indian technique of relieving stress. • Nootripics - is the use of cognition-enhancing drugs supplements by healthy individuals to improve cognitive function, particularly executive functions, memory, creativity or motivation. • Reading novels • Prayer- deliberate communication with an object of worship, deity or deified ancestor, invoking the deity and establishing rapport to facilitate dependency. Forms= thanksgiving, supplication, intercession, praise, requests. It takes abstract forms of meditation. Can be ritualistic prayer, liturgical, hymn, incantation, etc • Relaxation techniques-any procedure that helps a person to relax, to attain a state of calmness or reduce levels of pain, anxiety, stress or anger. breath ratesand has deter heath beneltsd pressure, slow heart and • Artistic expression- create a new idea, a scientific theory, musical composition, a joke or physical objects like an invention, printed literary work, or a painting • Fractional relaxation: It seems like you are referring to Fractional Relaxation, a stress-coping technique that involves gradually relaxing different muscle groups to reduce overall tension. How It Works: • Instead of relaxing the entire body at once, you focus on small sections (fractions) of the body, releasing tension step by step. • This helps improve body awareness and promotes progressive relaxation. Example: A person feeling stressed might start by relaxing their hands, then their arms, followed by their shoulders, and so on until the whole body feels at ease. This technique is similar to progressive muscle relaxation (PMR) and is used in stress management and anxiety reduction. • Humour

Answer 9

Stress is the body’s response to any demand or challenge (called a stressor). It could be physical, emotional, or mental. 2. Types of Stress Based on Effect: • Eustress – Good stress that motivates you (e.g., preparing for a competition). • Distress – Bad stress that overwhelms you (e.g., loss of a loved one). 3. Types of Stress Based on the Source: These are what show up in exam questions: • Pressure – When you feel forced to meet expectations or deadlines (e.g., final exams). • Frustration – When something blocks you from reaching your goal (e.g., stuck in traffic, low grades despite hard work). • Conflict – When you must choose between two or more competing options. • Change – When something new happens in your life (e.g., starting university, moving houses). More Details on CONFLICT (Type of Stress): There are 3 major types of conflict you should know — very common in MCQs: 1. Approach-Approach Conflict – You must choose between two good things. Example: You’re invited to two fun parties at the same time. 2. Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict – You must choose between two bad things. Example: You must choose between failing a paper or doing a tough supplementary exam. 3. Approach-Avoidance Conflict – One option has both good and bad sides. Example: You want to eat cake (you love it), but you’re on a diet (it’ll ruin your progress). Q40 – Social Influence Types (Simple and Clear) 1. Normative Social Influence – You copy others to fit in or be liked. Example: You smoke because your friends do, even if you don’t want to. 2. Informational Social Influence – You copy others because you believe they know better. Example: Everyone runs during an emergency, so you run too, assuming they know something you don’t. 3. (Note: “Nominal” and “Informed” social influence in the question are not standard terms. Just distractions.) → Correct answer to Q40: Normative Social Influence — because you changed your behavior to fit in and avoid being excluded.

Answer 10

Answer is logic. Perfect — here’s a short, non-table summary of the Universal Intellectual Standards in plain points (easy to copy and paste): 1. Clarity – Is the idea easy to understand or explain? 2. Accuracy – Is the information true and without errors? 3. Precision – Is the information detailed and exact? 4. Relevance – Does it relate directly to the issue or question? 5. Depth – Does it address the complexities of the issue? 6. Breadth – Does it consider other viewpoints or perspectives? 7. Logic – Do the ideas follow each other in a sensible and connected way? 8. Significance – Does it focus on the most important information? 9. Fairness – Is the reasoning unbiased and balanced? Absolutely! Here’s a punchy, text-only version of a table comparing Logic and Relevance that you can easily copy and paste anywhere: LOGIC vs RELEVANCE Logic: • Are the ideas connected and do they make sense together? • Does the conclusion follow from the evidence and reasoning? • Example: If A = B and B = C, then A = C (logical flow). Relevance: • Is the point directly related to the topic or question? • Does this information help solve the issue at hand? • Example: Talking about someone’s fashion during a health discussion is not relevant, even if it’s accurate. a statement can be perfectly logical but still not relevant to what you’re discussing. Example: You’re discussing why a patient didn’t take their medication. Someone says: “If elephants have tusks, and tusks are made of ivory, then elephants have ivory.” That’s logical, yes — but completely irrelevant to the topic.

Answer 11

Agbaa Kakalika and Commonwealth Hall – What’s influencing him? The best answer is: Group Cohesion. Explanation: Agbaa proudly identifies with his hall. His strong, bold response is influenced by how deeply connected he feels with that group (Commonwealth Hall). When people feel loyal and united with a group, they tend to speak or act in ways that show their commitment and pride — this is group cohesion, not just group size or unanimity. • Unanimity means everyone agrees — that’s not the focus here. • Group size is about how many people influence you — also not the focus. • Personality plays a role, but his response is better explained by his strong group bond (cohesion). The best answer should actually be “Complied with”, not “Accepted.” Here’s why: • To comply means you did something because you were asked to, not necessarily because you wanted to. • To accept a request means you agreed willingly or voluntarily, often with no pressure. • But your reason was: “I did it to help her out because she was running late…” — this implies you were influenced by her need, not necessarily that you were totally self-driven. So “Complied with her request” fits better. Conformed means doing something because others around you are doing it. Obeyed would be more appropriate if she had some kind of authority over you (like a boss or a teacher).

Answer 12

Sure! Here’s a clear, easy-to-remember breakdown of Piaget’s Four Stages of Cognitive Development, including definitions, age ranges, and examples: 1. Sensorimotor Stage (0–2 years) Definition: • Learning through senses and actions (looking, touching, grasping, etc.). Key Concept: • Object permanence – understanding that things continue to exist even when out of sight. Example: • A baby looks for a toy that was hidden under a blanket – showing object permanence. 2. Preoperational Stage (2–7 years) Definition: • Thinking is symbolic and imaginative, but not yet logical. Key Features: • Egocentrism – difficulty seeing things from others’ perspectives. • Centration – focus on one aspect of a situation. • Lack of conservation – cannot understand that quantity remains the same even if appearance changes. Example: • Child thinks one glass has more water just because it’s taller, even though both glasses have equal amounts. 3. Concrete Operational Stage (7–11 years) Definition: • Thinking becomes logical and organized, but only about concrete objects (things they can see or touch). Key Features: • Conservation – understanding that quantity doesn’t change despite shape changes. • Reversibility – understanding that things can return to their original state. • Classification and seriation – organizing objects by size, color, number, etc. Example: • Child understands that 5 + 3 = 8 and 8 – 3 = 5 (reversibility). • Child knows that a flattened ball of clay is still the same amount as the round ball (conservation). 4. Formal Operational Stage (12 years and above. Some say 11 and above) Definition: • Ability to think abstractly, hypothetically, and logically. Key Features: • Abstract thinking – can understand concepts like justice, love, politics. • Hypothetical-deductive reasoning – can form and test hypotheses. Example: • A teenager debates about morality or plans future careers based on different scenarios. Would you like a fun acronym or memory trick to easily remember the stages in order? Mnemonic: “Some People Can Fly” • S → Sensorimotor (0–2 years) • P → Preoperational (2–7 years) • C → Concrete Operational (7–11 years) • F → Formal Operational (11+ years 56. Which one of the following is not a wholesome way to think about the self… → Answer: How people think of us Explanation: Wholesome self-concept focuses on internal values, emotions, and private experiences, not external validation or opinions from others. Caring too much about others’ opinions can harm personal development. Give me a dozen healthy infants… I’ll make them anything I want.” — Why is this behaviourist? → Answer: Behaviourist Explanation: This quote comes from John B. Watson, the father of Behaviourism. • Behaviourism is the psychological school that says: “Behaviour is learned through interaction with the environment — not inherited.” • According to Watson, people are shaped by experience, not biology or genetics. • He believed that with the right environment, you can shape a person’s behaviour into anything — doctor, lawyer, thief, etc. Key Behaviourist Concepts: • Learning by conditioning (e.g., Pavlov’s dogs, Skinner’s box). • Stimulus → Response model (S → R). • Little Albert experiment — showing fear can be learned through association.

Answer 13

Great questions! Let’s break it all down clearly: 58. Ataa Oko and the Car Problem “Ataa Oko is faced with a problem. His car keys are locked in his car… he later thinks of another solution.” Correct answer:insight Learning Ataa Oko’s car keys are locked inside the car. He tries to force the door open (but fails). After a while, he suddenly realizes, “Oh! I can enter through the boot.” Now let’s understand what this situation is showing. What is Insight Learning? • It’s when you suddenly get a solution in your mind — like a light bulb turning on. • You didn’t learn it step by step or by watching someone. It just comes to you after thinking for a while. Think of it like: “Aha! I get it now!” That’s what happened to Ataa Oko — he suddenly thought of going through the boot. That’s insight. What is Latent Learning? • It means you’ve already learned something before, but you don’t show it until there’s a reason. • Example: You’ve walked around your school many times, so you know the way to the office, even though no one ever taught you. So latent learning is hidden learning that shows up later. Perfect — here’s a version you can easily copy and paste, no table. Insight learning means suddenly realizing the solution to a problem without trial and error. It’s like an “Aha!” moment. In the question, Ataa Oko couldn’t open the car door, but after thinking for a while, he suddenly got the idea to enter through the boot. That sudden realization is what makes it insight learning. Latent learning, on the other hand, is learning that has already happened but is not shown until there’s a reason or motivation to use it. For example, if Ataa Oko had previously learned that the boot can lead to the inside of the car but only remembered and used that knowledge now, then it would be latent learning. But in this case, there’s no indication that he already knew or learned about using the boot — it was a sudden idea. That’s why the correct answer is insight learning, not latent learning. What is Latent Learning? • It’s learning that happens but isn’t shown until there’s a reason to show it. • You may know something already but only show it when needed. Other possible answers: • Classical Learning (Conditioning): Learning by association (e.g., Pavlov’s dog — bell = food). • Observational Learning: Learning by watching others (e.g., child learns by seeing someone open a door). • Latent Learning: Learning that is stored but not used until needed 60. Yaa Sobro with IQ 42 but paints vivid scenes Correct answer: Savant Syndrome What is Savant Syndrome? • A rare condition where a person with intellectual disability (low IQ) shows extraordinary abilities in specific areas like music, art, memory, etc. Explanation: Yaa Sobro has low IQ (42) but extraordinary painting skills, which is classic Savant Syndrome. Other options: • Sternberg Syndrome – Does not exist (possibly a distractor using the name of psychologist Robert Sternberg). • Savvy Syndrome – Not a real medical term. • Sevant Syndrome – Likely a spelling error for “Savant Syndrome”. So Savant Syndrome is correct. 64. A consistency of scores of a good intelligence test is its… Correct answer: Reliability What is Reliability? • Reliability means how consistent the test results are — if the same person takes the test again, will they get a similar score? Why not Standardization? • Standardization is about how the test is given, not the results. • Example: Making sure everyone takes the test under the same conditions (same time, same instructions, etc.). • It ensures fairness, but not score consistency. Other options: • Validity: Measures whether the test actually tests what it is supposed to test (e.g., does it really measure intelligence?). • Norms: The average scores used to compare individual scores to the general population. Summary: • Reliability = Consistency • Validity = Accuracy of what it measures • Standardization = Equal testing conditions • Norms = Population averages for comparison

Answer 14

Great follow-up! Let’s break it down clearly and simply so you can easily understand and paste if needed: 65. Why isn’t it Social-Cognitive, but Humanistic instead? • Humanistic perspective focuses on self-concept, self-esteem, and achieving one’s full potential. It says that before you can grow or achieve, you must have a positive self-image. That’s exactly what the school psychologist believes — that positive self-concept is the foundation for potential. • Social-Cognitive perspective is more about how we learn through observing others, modeling behavior, and how thoughts and environment influence behavior — not directly focused on self-concept as the key to success. So: • Humanistic = self-concept comes first before success. • Social-cognitive = learning through observation and interaction. 66. Why is it Retroactive interference? Let’s explain all options: 1. Retroactive interference (Correct) → New info blocks old info. Sam learned Woodrow Wilson (new info) after Churchill (old info), and now he wrongly says Wilson instead of Churchill. 2. Proactive interference → Old info blocks new info. Example: If Sam had learned Wilson first, and then kept thinking Wilson when he’s asked about Churchill, even though he studied Churchill later. 3. Progressive interference → This is not a standard term in memory theory. Possibly a distractor. 4. Retrospective interference → Also not commonly used in memory theory. Another distractor. Great question — and you’re not alone! That “retro = old” confusion is common. Let me give you a simple memory trick and clear explanation so you’ll never mix them up again: Mnemonic Trick to Remember Interference Types: 1. Proactive Interference = Past blocks Present • “Pro” = Previous info interferes. • Old memories make it hard to remember new ones. • Think: “Old blocks New” (O > N) Example: You keep calling your new girlfriend by your ex’s name. 2. Retroactive Interference = Recent blocks Recall • “Retro” = Recent info interferes with old info. • New memories make it hard to remember old ones. • Think: “New blocks Old” (N > O) Example: You studied Churchill first, but after learning about Wilson, you now forget Churchill. Extra Memory Aid (short line to memorize): “Proactive = Old interferes. Retroactive = New interferes.” Or try this fun line: “PROfessors forget New students, RETRO lovers forget Old flames.” Why ‘retro’ doesn’t mean old in this context: Even though “retro” sounds like “old,” in retroactive interference, the “new” info is retroactively interfering with the old — that’s why it’s confusing. But the action is coming from the new, not the old. 67. Why isn’t it Conforming, but Obeying instead? Let’s clarify: • Obeying (Correct) = You follow a rule or authority’s instruction even if you don’t like it. → You don’t like the lab coat, but you wear it because it’s required by the school authority. • Conforming = Changing your behavior to match a group or social norm, not necessarily because of authority. → If everyone in your group wore coats and you copied them to fit in, that would be conformity. Summary: • Obeying = following rules/instructions from authority. • Conforming = adapting to fit in with a peer group or social norm. 68. Behaviour has influenced our attitude → When we adjust our attitude after doing something (like justifying our actions), it means our behaviour has shaped our attitude, not the other way around. 69. To conform to the status quo → This is NOT a goal of personal efficiency. Personal efficiency is about thinking critically and breaking free from limiting systems — not staying within them. 70. Movement → The sliding filament theory explains how muscles contract and cause movement, based on how actin and myosin filaments slide past each other. 71. Intuition → Intuition refers to decision-making based on gut feelings or immediate judgment, without logical reasoning or deep analysis.

Answer 15

Mueller-Lyer Illusion — Ends trick your brain • Two lines of equal length look unequal because of arrowheads or fins at their ends. • It’s about how your brain interprets distance based on the shape at the end of each line. • Example: →—————← (looks shorter) ←—————→ (looks longer) Both lines are same length, but the ends deceive you. 2. Ponzo Illusion — Background tricks your brain • Two identical lines or objects are placed on a background with converging lines (like railway tracks). • The upper line looks bigger, even though it’s the same size. • Cue used: Linear perspective and depth perception — brain thinks the top line is farther away, so it should be bigger, but it isn’t. Example: / \ / \ / \ ===== (Line 1 - higher up, looks bigger) ===== (Line 2 - lower, looks smaller) • Because of the background lines (rail tracks), your brain thinks the top one is farther, so it must be longer, even though they’re the same size. Ponzo illusion → Monocular depth cue (linear perspective) is the main explanation. • Müller-Lyer illusion → Also interpreted by monocular depth cues, just less obviously, and also often explained as contextual line perception. Want a one-line takeaway? Both illusions involve monocular depth cues, but Ponzo is more directly about perspective, while Müller-Lyer mixes depth perception with contextual visual cues. During which stage of Hans Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) is the sympathetic nervous system activated? → Correct answer: Alarm stage General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) — Hans Selye’s 3-stage model of how the body responds to stress: 1. Alarm stage (initial reaction): • Sympathetic nervous system is activated (fight or flight). • Adrenaline and cortisol levels rise. • Heart rate increases, pupils dilate, muscles tense. 2. Resistance stage (adaptation): • The body tries to cope and adapt to the stressor. • Cortisol remains high, energy is consumed. • You appear normal outside, but your body is still working hard inside. 3. Exhaustion stage (burnout): • Body’s resources are depleted. • Fatigue, illness, or collapse may occur. • Immune system weakens; mental and physical breakdown may follow. 4. (Denial is not a stage in GAS. It’s a defense mechanism in psychology.) How to remember it: A-R-E = Alarm – Resistance – Exhaustion 79 answer is act voluntarily

Answer 16

The correct answer is: “it justifies actions by appealing directly to utility.” Explanation: Act Utilitarianism says an action is morally right if it produces the greatest good (utility) for the greatest number in that specific situation — based on the consequences of that particular act. So we judge each action individually by how much overall happiness or utility it brings. Explanation of other options: 1. “It enjoins us to assess the effects of different actions” → Sounds correct but is too vague. All utilitarianism assesses consequences. But Act Utilitarianism specifically judges each act, not just “different actions” broadly. 2. “It maximises pleasure” → This is partly true, but “utility” includes more than just pleasure (e.g., well-being, satisfaction). Also, this is more specific to hedonistic utilitarianism, not Act Utilitarianism in general. 3. “It argues that individual desires count in the utility calculus” → This leans toward preference utilitarianism, not strictly Act Utilitarianism. Sure! Here’s a concise breakdown: Types of Utilitarianism: 1. Act Utilitarianism: • Each action is judged individually based on whether it produces the greatest good (utility) in that specific situation. • Focus: Consequences of each specific act. 2. Rule Utilitarianism: • An action is right if it follows a rule that, when generally followed, leads to the greatest utility. • Focus: Following rules that produce the best outcomes overall. 3. Preference Utilitarianism: • Instead of focusing only on pleasure or pain, it considers what people prefer or value. • Focus: Satisfaction of preferences rather than just happiness. 4. Negative Utilitarianism: • Focuses on reducing suffering rather than maximizing happiness. • Goal: Minimize harm or pain. Utilitarianism vs Consequentialism: • Consequentialism is a broader theory — it says the morality of an action depends solely on its consequences, no matter what those consequences are. • Utilitarianism is a type of consequentialism — it specifically defines the “good consequence” as utility (happiness, well-being, etc.). → So: All utilitarians are consequentialists, but not all consequentialists are utilitarians (some might value other consequences like justice, freedom, etc.). Would you like a quick trick to remember this? Great! Here’s a simple and clear distinction: Difference between Rule and Act Utilitarianism: • Act Utilitarianism: • Judges each individual action by whether it brings the greatest happiness. • “Do whatever gives the best result in this situation.” • Example: If lying would save a life in a particular situation, then lying is morally right in that moment. • Rule Utilitarianism: • Judges actions based on general rules that, if followed by everyone, would bring the greatest happiness. • “Follow rules that generally produce good outcomes.” • Example: Lying is generally wrong because if everyone lied, trust would break down — even if it may help in one situation. Shortcut to remember: • Act = Action-based (case by case) • Rule = Rule-based (long-term general benefit) Want a real-life scenario to help you remember?

Answer 17

This perspective on personal development provides an understanding of how social forces can contribute to or detract from self-direction: Correct answer: Social Psychology Explanation of all options: • Developmental Psychology → Focuses on how people grow and change across life stages, including cognitive, emotional, and physical changes — not mainly on social forces. • Psychoanalytic Psychology → Focuses on unconscious motives, inner conflicts, and childhood experiences, not on external social forces. • Humanistic Psychology → Focuses on personal growth, self-actualization, and individual potential, not mainly on how society affects self-direction. • Social Psychology → Correct. This studies how society, peers, culture, and social norms influence individual behavior, motivation, and self-direction. Which of the following statements is true? → Only ‘a’ & ‘b’ are right • True: Small amounts of stress (eustress) can be motivating, but too much stress (distress) is harmful. 85. The Patients Charter envisages collaboration amongst the following persons EXCEPT… → Civil Society Organisations • The charter mainly focuses on interactions between clients (patients), health professionals, and relatives, not external organizations. 86. In impression management, “Illicitly making oneself likable in another’s eyes” best describes… → Ingratiation • Ingratiation is trying to gain favor or be liked — sometimes deceptively or manipulatively. 87. Which of the following theories encourages all stakeholders’ involvement in the development process? → Participatory Development Approach • This theory emphasizes inclusive involvement, where all community members and stakeholders are part of the decision-making and development process. Sure! Here’s a breakdown of question 87 and the explanation of the possible answers: 87. Which of the following theories encourages all stakeholders’ involvement in the development process? Correct answer: Participatory development approach Explanation of all options: 1. Participatory development approach – Correct answer • This approach emphasizes that everyone involved or affected by a development process (community members, policymakers, organizations, etc.) should have a say and actively participate in planning, decision-making, and implementation. • It is based on inclusiveness, ownership, and empowerment. 2. All-inclusive approach – Incorrect (not a standard theory) • While the term sounds nice, it’s not a formally recognized development theory like “participatory development.” It’s more of a vague phrase and lacks a defined framework in development literature. 3. Human-centred approach – Incorrect • This approach focuses on individual needs, values, and experiences, especially in design or innovation (like designing tools or systems for human use). • It’s more about user satisfaction than involving all stakeholders in a community development process. 4. People-Centred Development – Close, but not the best answer here • This also focuses on improving people’s well-being and putting people first, but it emphasizes economic and social development benefiting people, not necessarily the active involvement of all stakeholders in the process. • It’s broader, while Participatory development is specifically about involving everyone in decision-making.

Answer 18

Stages of Change Theory – What are the stages? This theory is also called the Transtheoretical Model of Behaviour Change. It explains how people change health behaviours like smoking, poor diet, alcohol use, etc. Stages: 1. Precontemplation – The person is not thinking about change yet. 2. Contemplation – The person starts thinking about making a change soon. 3. Preparation – The person makes small steps and is ready to act soon. 4. Action – The person has started the change (e.g., quit smoking). 5. Maintenance – The person is trying to keep up the new behaviour. 6. (Sometimes) Relapse – The person returns to the old habit (optional stage but often included). Key idea: It focuses on health behaviour change, not just thoughts or emotions. Bandura contends that personality is shaped by the following EXCEPT “Traits”. What does this mean? Correct answer: Traits Because Bandura’s theory is Social Cognitive Theory, not trait theory. Explanation of the options: 1. Modelling – We learn by watching others, especially role models. If you see someone behaving a certain way and getting rewarded, you may copy them. 2. Imitation – This is closely related to modelling. It means copying someone’s actions. 3. Learning – Bandura believed that personality develops through learning from the environment — from observing rewards, punishments, and experiences. 4. Traits (Incorrect) – Traits are part of Trait Theory, not Bandura’s theory. Trait theory (like that of Eysenck or the Big Five) believes people are born with fixed personality traits (like being introverted or extroverted). So Bandura focused on environment, observation, and interaction — not on inborn traits. William is listening to Samini’s song and memorizing lyrics. According to Baddeley, the information will be processed in the… Correct answer: Phonological loop • Phonological loop = deals with sound and verbal information (e.g., music, speech). • Visuospatial sketchpad = visual and spatial info. • Central executive = controls attention and coordinates all parts. • Declarative memory = long-term memory for facts (not a working memory part like the loop or sketchpad). 92. In Piaget’s stage of concrete operational intelligence, the child acquires an understanding of the principle of… Correct answer: Conservation • Conservation = understanding that quantity doesn’t change when shape or appearance changes (e.g., same water in a tall vs. short glass). • Object permanence = seen earlier in sensorimotor stage. • Deduction = comes more in formal operational stage. • Attachment = not part of Piaget’s theory; it’s from Bowlby/Ainsworth. Which of the following is considered a designer drug? Correct answer should be something like Ecstasy (MDMA) or Synthetic cannabinoids, but your options (Heroin, Marijuana, Cocaine) are traditional drugs. • Designer drugs are chemically altered to mimic illegal drugs but evade law classification — examples include bath salts, synthetic weed, MDMA. 95. One of the following is NOT a basic emotion universally expressed on the face: Correct answer: Guilt • Basic facial expressions (Ekman’s theory) = Happiness, Anger, Sadness, Disgust, Surprise, Fear. • Guilt is complex, more internal, and not universally recognized through facial expression. 96. The type of egocentric thinking: “It is true because we believe it” Correct answer: Innate sociocentricism • Sociocentricism = thinking your group’s beliefs are automatically correct just because it’s your group. • Egocentricism = individual-centered. • Selfishness = behavior driven by self-interest. • Wish fulfillment = believing something because you want it to be true. | Type | Explanation | Example | |--------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------| | Innate egocentricism | Believing something is true because *I* believe it. | "I know I'm right!" | | Innate sociocentricism | Believing something is true because *our group* believes it. | "It’s true because *we* believe it in our family/community." | | Innate wish fulfilment | Believing something is true because you *want* it to be true. | "I’ll pass the exam because I really want to." | | Innate selfishness | Putting your own interests first, even if it’s unfair or wrong. | "I don't care what others think — I want it my way." | Koo Darkie fell into a relaxed state that felt like a dream but he wasn’t asleep. He is experiencing… Correct answer: Hypnagogic state • Hypnagogic state = the transition between wakefulness and sleep, often with dream-like feelings. • Daydream = a waking fantasy. • Sleeper effect = a psychology concept about delayed persuasion. • Myoclonic state = sudden muscle jerks, not dream-like states. Why is it not a daydream but a Hypnagogic State? Let’s clarify: • Daydream → Happens when you’re awake and conscious. You’re just imagining things or zoning out. • E.g., Sitting in class and imagining yourself on a beach. • Hypnagogic state → Happens when you’re in-between wakefulness and sleep. You’re not fully asleep, not fully awake. • It can feel dream-like, but you are about to sleep. So in the question: “Koo Darkie is not asleep but is in a relaxed state that felt like a dream.” That is not just daydreaming — it matches the hypnagogic state, because it’s the transition period just before sleep, often with visual, auditory, or floating sensations.

Answer 19

Which of the following is NOT considered in the resolution of ethical dilemmas? Answer: Respecting legitimate diversity. • Explanation: While respecting diversity is important in healthcare practice generally, when it comes specifically to resolving ethical dilemmas, the focus is more on moral obligations, professional duties, and considering all perspectives and implications of an action. Ethical resolution usually involves: • Obligations to the patient • Careful examination of viewpoints • Assessing whether obligations are being fulfilled “Respecting legitimate diversity” is more of a value principle than a core tool for resolving dilemmas. Who discovered that electrical stimulation of the frog nerve caused muscle contraction? Answer: Galvani • Explanation: • Luigi Galvani discovered bioelectricity when he observed that frog muscles twitched in response to electrical stimulation. • Santiago Ramón y Cajal and Camillo Golgi contributed to neuroscience and neuron theory. • Anton van Leeuwenhoek is known for microscopy and discovering microorganisms, not muscle contraction.

Answer 20

Sign posting is A behaviour that signifies change in direction in an interview. This is when a speaker clearly indicates a shift or transition to another topic (e.g., “Now let’s move on to…”). It helps guide the listener through the conversation. 7. Why isn’t C (Patient’s concerns) correct? Correct answer: B. Patient’s ideas • In patient-centered care, “ideas” means understanding what the patient thinks is causing their condition or what they believe is happening. • “Concerns” are part of what you explore too, but the first step is exploring the patient’s ideas. So it’s a fine line—but ideas come first in understanding their perspective. • In many models like ICE (Ideas, Concerns, Expectations), ideas are explored first. 9. Why isn’t A (The subject to study) correct? Correct answer: B. The specific objectives • While choosing a subject is important, objectives guide what you want to achieve in that study session. • You can’t study effectively without knowing what you’re trying to achieve (e.g., “Understand cardiac cycle” is more focused than just “Study biology”). 12. Explain possible answers: “I hate keeping livestock…” • A. Firsthand experience – Correct. The person’s dislike is based on direct personal experience. • B. Cognitive dissonance – Conflict between beliefs and behavior, which is not the case here. • C. Cognition – Refers to mental processing in general, but doesn’t explain why they feel a certain way. • D. Stereotypes – Generalized beliefs about a group; this is personal, not generalized, so it’s not a stereotype possible answers – “Covid protocols and solving problems” • A. Insightful learning – Involves sudden understanding or “aha” moments, like solving puzzles. • B. Procedural learning – Learning steps or routines, like how to perform surgery. It’s more about learning the process itself. • C. Mechanical solution – Correct. It’s solving a problem by repeating a set of standard steps, without creativity — like following a fixed Covid treatment protocol. • D. Heuristic solution – Using rules of thumb or experience-based techniques, more flexible than mechanical. Sure! Here are simple examples for each option in Question 21 to help you understand better: 21. Health care professionals are directed to adhere strictly to the Covid treatment protocols… What kind of problem-solving technique is this? A. Insightful learning (“Aha!” moments or sudden realization) • Example: A doctor suddenly realizes that a patient’s recurring symptoms point to a rare disease they hadn’t considered before — a sudden insight, not something learned by steps. B. Procedural learning (Learning through following a process over time) • Example: A medical student repeatedly practices inserting IV lines until they learn the correct step-by-step method. • Another example: Learning how to prepare tissue slides in a lab — you follow steps and improve over time. C. Mechanical solution (Applying standard, fixed steps without thinking deeply) • Example: A nurse follows the exact Covid treatment protocol written by the Ministry without trying to modify it — even if the patient’s condition is slightly different. • Another: Administering medication using a fixed dosage chart rather than evaluating patient needs individually. D. Heuristic solution (Trial-and-error or rule-of-thumb methods) • Example: A doctor isn’t sure what antibiotic will work, so starts with the one that usually works in most cases — then changes if it fails. That’s using a rule of thumb, not a fixed protocol. • Another: Deciding a treatment plan based on past experience rather than a standard guideline. So, the best fit in the case of “strictly following Covid treatment protocols” is: C. Mechanical solution. Would you like a simple chart version too?

Answer 21

Here are the correct answers along with explanations for Questions 23 and 24: 23. The sum of an individual’s distinct characteristics that makes him/her different from others is … → Correct answer: A. Self • A. Self → Refers to the entire identity of a person, including personality, values, beliefs, emotions, thoughts, and behaviors — what makes you “you.” • B. Self-esteem → This is about how much you value yourself or your sense of worth — not the total sum of characteristics. • C. Self-image → This is how you see yourself or how you think others see you (e.g., physical appearance, abilities). • D. Actual self → Refers to your real attributes — what you actually are — often used in contrast with ideal self or perceived self. 24. [PHYSIOLOGY] When considering the role of hormones in human diseases, which of the following will be of less concern to you? → Correct answer: D. Presence of the hormone • A. Abnormal hormone production → Very relevant. Overproduction or underproduction can cause diseases (e.g., diabetes, hyperthyroidism). • B. Downstream hormone response → Also important. Even if hormones are produced, the body’s response to them can be faulty (e.g., insulin resistance). • C. Hormone-receptor interactions → Highly important. If receptors are defective or blocked, hormones won’t have their intended effect (e.g., androgen insensitivity syndrome). • D. Presence of the hormone → Just having the hormone present doesn’t mean it’s functioning properly. It may be there but not active, not reaching the target, or receptors may not respond — so mere presence is less informative. Here are the correct answers and explanations for Questions 25–27: 25. Community refuses to take COVID-19 vaccine due to misconceptions … → Correct answer: A. Perceptual • A. Perceptual → Correct. Misconceptions arise from faulty perception or interpretation of information, e.g., rumors or false beliefs about vaccine effects. • B. Emotional → Would refer to feelings like fear, anxiety, or mistrust, but the keyword here is misconceptions, which are more perception-based. • C. Learned → This refers to behavior formed through past experiences or conditioning, not necessarily misconceptions. • D. Cultural → Would apply if the refusal stems from traditions or cultural values, not general misinformation. 27. Sanction […] given during a hearing of … → Correct answer: D. Suspension • A. Undertaking → This is a promise or commitment, not a sanction. • B. Jail → A form of punishment, but not usually a sanction given during a professional hearing (e.g., by a disciplinary committee). • C. Conditions → May refer to terms imposed, but not a standard sanction by itself. • D. Suspension → Correct. Suspension is a disciplinary sanction often issued after a formal hearing — common in professional or academic settings. Let me know if you’d like a summary table or if you want more questions explained.

Answer 22

28. In presenting your essay assignment and project work, it is important … → Correct answer: C. put all your ideas and paragraph in a simple but detailed form. Explanation of options: • A. number your ideas and paragraph → This may help organization but is not the most important aspect of presenting an essay or project. • B. put your ideas in simple terms → Simplicity is good, but without detail, your work lacks depth. • C. put all your ideas and paragraph in a simple but detailed form → Correct. This balances clarity and depth, which is essential for effective academic presentation. • D. collecting all information’s about your idea before starting your work → This is more about preparation, not presentation. Would you like a quick summary table of all answers so far? Which year was the Universal Declaration of Human Rights formalized? → Correct answer: B. 1948 Explanation: • The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 10th December 1948. • It is a milestone document that proclaims the rights and freedoms of all human beings. Other options: • A. 1984 / C. 1944 / D. 1964 → Incorrect, these years do not relate to the UDHR. 34. Munuri always feels anxious before performing a surgical procedure as a medical officer. Despite doing several successful surgical procedures he always feels anxious. This is as a result of … → Correct answer: A. low self-efficacy Explanation: • Self-efficacy is your belief in your ability to perform a task successfully. • Even though Munuri has the skill (and success), his belief in himself is low, hence the persistent anxiety. Other options: • B. Self-appraisal → Refers to evaluating oneself but doesn’t directly explain persistent anxiety. • C. Self-esteem → General sense of self-worth, not specific to task performance like surgery. • D. Medical errors → No error was mentioned in the question.

Answer 23

Which of the following does not suggest you work in partnership with the patient? Correct Answer: C. Do not act if patient’s life is put at risk. Explanation of options: • A. Listen to patients and respond to their needs – Good partnership behavior. • B. Give patients information they need and in a manner they understand – Empowering patients is part of partnership. • C. Do not act if patient’s life is put at risk – This actually contradicts professional responsibility. In emergencies, even without consent, a doctor can act in the patient’s best interest. • D. Support patients in caring for their needs – Also reflects patient-centered, partnership care.

Self Perception And Embarassment And Personal And Professional Development And Stress Flashcards

(47 cards)