Learning

Question 1

What is learning

Answer 1

Learning can be defined as the process by which any relatively permanent change in behaviour occurs as a result of practice and/or experience.

Behaviour can be mental (thought or image)

Or observable (fainting, throwing up, drooling

Observable behavior refers to actions that can be seen or measured by others. Fainting, vomiting, and drooling are considered observable behaviors because they involve physical responses that can be witnessed directly.

Question 2

When learning takes place, you have been conditioned
Learning is a change that takes place through what?
Before learning can be called learning, what must take place ?

Answer 2

Learning is a change of behaviour, for better or worse:

It is a change that takes place through practice or experience; changes due to growth, maturation, fatigue or injury are not included in learning;

Before it can be called learning, the change must be relatively permanent, that is it must last fairly long time. For example, once an individual learns to ride a cycle he usually does not forget it.

Question 3

The change in behaviour needs to occur immediately following the experience of learning. True or false

Answer 3

False
The change in behaviour needs not occur immediately following the experience. The behaviour can be expressed later. Eg. Dancing, use of maths to perform operations, etc.

Question 4

State and define the three types of learning

Answer 4

Classical Conditioning: involve the involuntary reflexes.

Operant Conditioning: involve voluntary behaviours.

Cognitive Learning: Using mental processes, perhaps imitating others.

Question 5

Both classical and operant conditioning are called what together?

Answer 5

Associative learning
Because you learn by associating two events together that happen at the same time.

Question 6

What is classical conditioning
Other names for classical conditioning are?(state two)

Answer 6

It a type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus.

It is also known as respondent conditioning or pavlovian conditioning.

Question 7

What did Ivan Pavlov experiments highlight?

Answer 7

His experiments highlighted the basic principles of how organisms learn through association.

Ivan Pavlov
(1849-1936)
Russian
Physiologist
interested in
studying the
digestive processes
of dogs.

Question 8

How was Pavlovs experiment on conditioning done?
What is the neutral stimulus,conditioned response,unconditioned response,unconditioned stimulus,conditioned stimulus in the experiment Pavlov did?

Answer 8

Before conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus (food) produces an unconditioned response (salivation), and a neutral stimulus (bell) does not produce a response. During conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus (food) is presented repeatedly just after the presentation of the neutral stimulus (bell). After conditioning, the neutral stimulus alone produces a conditioned response (salivation), thus becoming a conditioned stimulus.

Pavlov’s experiment on conditioning, also known as classical conditioning, involved studying how animals (particularly dogs in his famous experiments) could be trained to associate a neutral stimulus with a reflex response.

Here’s a simplified explanation of Pavlov’s classical conditioning experiment:

1. Initial Setup:
   
   • Pavlov used dogs in his experiments. Normally, dogs naturally salivate (produce saliva) when they see or smell food. Initial Observations: Pavlov noticed that dogs would start to salivate not only when food was presented but also when they saw the lab assistant who fed them or heard the sounds associated with feeding.
2. Neutral Stimulus (NS) and Unconditioned Stimulus (US):
   
   • Pavlov introduced a neutral stimulus, such as a bell or a metronome, before presenting the dogs with food (which naturally elicited salivation). The bell or metronome at first did not elicit a salivary response from the dogs.
3. Conditioning Process:
   
   • Initially, the bell (neutral stimulus) does not elicit any salivation from the dogs.
   • Pavlov then paired the neutral stimulus (bell) with the presentation of food (unconditioned stimulus), which naturally caused the dogs to salivate (unconditioned response).
4. Establishing Association:
   
   • After repeated pairings of the bell with the food, the dogs started to associate the bell with the food. They began to salivate in response to the bell alone, even when food was not presented.
5. Conditioned Response (CR):
   
   • Eventually, the sound of the bell alone (now a conditioned stimulus) became enough to elicit salivation from the dogs. This salivation in response to the bell, which originally was neutral, is called the conditioned response.

Key Points:
- Neutral Stimulus (NS): Initially, the bell did not elicit salivation. Pavlov used a neutral stimulus, such as a bell, which initially did not elicit any salivatory response from the dogs.

• Unconditioned Stimulus (US): The presentation of food naturally caused salivation. He presented food (an unconditioned stimulus) to the dogs, which naturally and reflexively caused them to salivate (unconditioned response, UCR).
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): The bell, after being paired with the food.
• Unconditioned Response (UR): Natural salivation in response to food.
• Conditioned Response (CR): Salivation in response to the bell alone, after conditioning.

Pavlov’s experiment demonstrated that animals (and humans) could learn to associate neutral stimuli with meaningful events, altering their behavior based on these learned associations. This research laid the foundation for understanding how learning and behavioral conditioning work in both animals and humans.

Question 9

Explain Pavlovs conditioning process

Answer 9

CONDITIONING PROCESS
1.Pairing of Stimuli: Pavlov repeatedly paired the NS (bell) with the UCS (food). During this phase, the NS would be presented just before the food.

2.Acquisition: After several pairings, the dogs began to associate the NS with the UCS. Eventually, the NS alone (now a Conditioned Stimulus, CS) would elicit salivation (now a conditioned response, CR).

Question 10

Under Pavlov’s experiment:
What is classical conditioning
What is generalization
What is discrimination
What is extinction
What is spontaneous recovery

Answer 10

Key Findings
1.Classical Conditioning: Pavlov demonstrated that a NS could become a conditioned stimulus capable of eliciting a conditioned response through association.
2.Generalization: Dogs would also respond to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus. For example, if a different tone of bell was used, the dogs would still salivate.
3.Discrimination: Dogs could learn to distinguish between different stimuli if only one specific stimulus was consistently paired with the UCS.
4.Extinction: If the CS was repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus, the CR would gradually diminish and eventually disappear.
5.Spontaneous Recovery: After extinction, if some time passed and the CS was presented again, the CR could briefly reappear

Yes, exactly!
• Extinction happens when you repeatedly present the conditioned stimulus (CS) (bell) without the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) (food). Over time, the dog stops salivating (CR) because it learns that the bell no longer predicts food.
• Spontaneous recovery happens after extinction, when the CS (bell) is presented again after a break, and the CR (salivation) briefly reappears before disappearing again if the food is still not given.

It’s like the memory of the association isn’t completely erased, just suppressed!

Not quite! In classical conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is something that naturally triggers a response, while the conditioned stimulus (CS) is something that starts off neutral but eventually triggers a learned response after being associated with the UCS.

Let’s break it down using the Pavlov’s dog experiment:
1. Before Conditioning:
• Food (UCS) → Automatically causes salivation (UCR, unconditioned response)
• Bell (Neutral Stimulus, NS) → No response
2. During Conditioning:
• Bell (NS) + Food (UCS) → Salivation (UCR)
• The dog starts associating the bell with food.
3. After Conditioning:
• Bell (now the CS) → Salivation (now the CR, conditioned response)

So, the bell was originally neutral, but after repeated pairing with the food, it became the conditioned stimulus (CS) that triggers salivation even without the food.

Would you like a medical example to help clarify?

A medical example of classical conditioning is chemotherapy-induced nausea:
1. Before Conditioning:
• Chemotherapy (UCS) → Causes nausea (UCR, unconditioned response)
• Hospital environment (Neutral Stimulus, NS) → No response
2. During Conditioning:
• Hospital (NS) + Chemotherapy (UCS) → Nausea (UCR)
• Over time, the patient starts associating the hospital with nausea.
3. After Conditioning:
• Hospital alone (now the CS) → Nausea (now the CR, conditioned response)
• The patient may feel nauseated just by entering the hospital, even before receiving chemotherapy.

This explains why some patients develop anticipatory nausea, where they start feeling sick before treatment even begins.

Would you like another real-world example?

Question 11

Under classical conditioning terminology what is a stimulus,unconditional stimulus,unconditional response,neutral stimulus,conditioned stimulus,conditioned response

Answer 11

Stimulus: Object that excites our sense organs.
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that will evoke a response without training. Eg. Food.
Unconditioned Response (UCR): The response to an unconditioned stimulus. Eg. Salivation.
Neutral Stimulus (NS): A stimulus that does not elicit (draw forth or bring about) the unconditioned (or reflexive) response eg. Tone, music etc
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A NS that is paired with a UCS, and comes to provoke the same response as the UCS (in the absence of the US). Eg. Tone.
Conditioned Response (CR): The same response as the UCR, but now to a CS, rather than to a UCS. Eg. Salivation

Question 12

Under principles of classical conditioning,what is stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination
What is extinction?
What is spontaneous discovery

Answer 12

Generalization and Discrimination
Stimulus Generalization: Learned response not only to the original stimulus also to other similar stimuli.

Stimulus Discrimination: The process of learning to make one response to one stimulus and a different response, or no response to another stimulus.

Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery
Extinction: CS is presented alone without the UCS for a number of trials.

Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance of a previously extinguished CR.

Stimulus Generalization

Stimulus generalization happens when a response that was learned for one specific stimulus occurs for similar stimuli. The closer the new stimulus is to the original, the stronger the response.

Example (Health-Related):
A patient who had a bad reaction to a specific antibiotic (e.g., penicillin) may develop fear or an allergic response to all antibiotics, even if they’ve never taken them before.

Stimulus Discrimination

Stimulus discrimination is the ability to distinguish between similar stimuli and only respond to the specific one that was originally associated with the response.

Example (Health-Related):
A child who was afraid of a barking dog learns to fear only large, aggressive dogs but remains calm around small, friendly ones.

Would you like more examples?

Question 13

State five everyday examples of classical conditioning

Answer 13

Police siren
Ambulance siren
Warning tardy bell
Smell of freshly baked bread
Taste aversions

Question 14

What is operant conditioning
This theory was developed by who?
State three concepts in operant conditioning

Answer 14

A type of learning in which behaviour is strengthened if followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment.
The process of learning in which the consequences of a response determine the probability that the response will be repeated.
The theory was developed by B.F. Skinner, building on Edward Thorndike’s Law of Effect.
Key concepts or principle in operant conditioning include reinforcement, punishment, and extinction.

Question 15

Explain thorndikes experiment and law of effect

Answer 15

Placed a hungry cat inside the box and shut the Door.
Placed some food on a dish outside the box that the cat could see through the slots in the crate.
The cat had to figure out how to open the door to get the food.
Cat accidentally hit the latch and the door opened – cat got to eat.
Law of Effect
It states that behaviours followed by satisfying consequences (rewards) are more likely to be repeated, while behaviours followed by unpleasant consequences (punishments) are less likely to be repeated.
Consequences of an action influence the likelihood of that action being performed in the future

Thorndike’s Puzzle Box
Cats placed in Thorndike’s puzzle box learned to make their escape through a random process of trial and error.

So example:
If you eat a good and you’re rewarded by feeling full, you’re likely to eat it again but if you eat a food and you end up vomiting(a sort of punishment) you’re not likely to eat it again.

Question 16

Explain BF Skinners experiment

Answer 16

The Skinner Box that contained a lever or a button that an animal (usually a rat or pigeon) could press to obtain a reward, such as food or water.
An animal placed inside the Skinner Box would explore and, through trial and error, discover that pressing the lever resulted in a reward.
Skinner manipulated the contingencies of reinforcement to observe different patterns of behaviour.

Question 17

What is reinforcement and what are the two types?
What is punishment and what are the two types?
What is extinction

Answer 17

Reinforcement: Any event that strengthens or increases the frequency of a behaviour.
Positive Reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behaviour. Eg. Giving a child candy for completing homework.
Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behaviour. Eg. Taking away a loud noise when a rat presses a lever.
Punishment: Any event that weakens or decreases the frequency of a behaviour.
Positive Punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease a behaviour. Eg. Giving a student extra homework for being disruptive in class.
Negative Punishment: Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behaviour. Eg. Not going for break.
Extinction: The process by which a previously reinforced behaviour is weakened by no longer providing reinforcement. Eg. if a rat no longer receives food for pressing a lever, it will eventually stop pressing the lever.

Question 18

State the types of reinforcement schedules

Answer 18

The timing and frequency of reinforcement are critical in shaping behaviour. There are several types of reinforcement schedules:
Fixed-Ratio Schedule: Reinforcement is provided after a set number of responses. Eg. A worker gets paid for every 10 items produced.
Variable-Ratio Schedule: Reinforcement is provided after an unpredictable number of responses. This schedule is common in gambling, where the number of lever presses needed to win varies.
Fixed-Interval Schedule: Reinforcement is provided after a fixed amount of time has passed, assuming the desired behaviour has occurred. Eg. A weekly pay check.
Variable-Interval Schedule: Reinforcement is provided after varying amounts of time have passed. Eg. Checking for a randomly arriving email.

Question 19

Explain the difference between classical and operant conditioning

Answer 19

In Operant Conditioning, reinforcement/punishment follows an action and is based on a voluntary response whilst in Classical conditioning is based on involuntary, reflexive response.

The organism operates on the environment that produced consequences whilst in classical conditioning there is automatic response to stimulus.

Operant responses tend to be voluntary and are said to be emitted rather elicited as in classical conditioning.

Question 20

Explain cognitive learning and state the key aspects of this cognitive learning
State the three types of cognitive learning

Answer 20

It involves mental processes such as thinking, understanding, problem-solving, and remembering.
Learning that occurs without the opportunity of first performing the learned response or being reinforced for it.
Unlike associative learning, focus primarily on observable behaviours and external stimuli, cognitive learning emphasizes on the internal mental processes that occur during learning.
Key aspects of include the acquisition, processing, and use of knowledge.

Three types of cognitive learning:
Insight learning
Latent learning
Observational learning.

Question 21

Explain the process of insight learning

Answer 21

The process of mentally working through a problem until the sudden realization of a solution occurs.

We may call this moment of sudden insight the “Aha!” phenomenon

It does not depend on flash of inspiration or arise “out of the blue.”

Insight may occur by restructuring or reorganizing a problem in your mind until you see how the various parts fit together to form a solution.

Question 22

Explain the process of latent learning

Answer 22

Learning that occurs without apparent reinforcement and that is not displayed until reinforcement is provided.

Learning has taken place but it is not demonstrated until circumstances allow or require it to be expressed.

This is learning that occurs but remains hidden until there is a reward for performing the learned behaviour

A common example is learning the lyrics to a song you may have heard repeatedly on the radio, even though you never made an effort to learn them or ever practiced them. Learning the lyrics may remain “latent” until someone prompts you to recite them at a party.

Question 23

Explain the process of observational learning?
This type of learning is influenced by what two things

Answer 23

Learning by observing and imitating the behaviour of others (also called vicarious learning or modelling).

Through observational learning, one become capable of behaviours even before one has had the chance to perform them ourselves
Example is a child learning to imitate the gestures and habits of older people through observation

Observational Learning is influenced by;
Vicarious Reinforcement: the observed reinforcement of the behaviour of the model.
Vicarious Punishment: The Observed punishment of the behaviour of a mode

Question 24

State two factors affecting observational learning

Answer 24

Factors Affecting Observational Learning includes;
1.Characteristics of the Model (Competence, Prestige, Attractive)
2.Characteristics of the Observer
Age of the Learner
Learning History of the learner
Emotional State of the Learner

Question 25

Operant is a type of learning in which behavior is diminished fi followed by reinforcement or strengthened fi followed by punishment True or false With Operant conditioning reinforcement/punishment follows an action and is based on a voluntary response. • Which differs from classical conditioning whichisbased on an involuntary, reflexive response. 1operant responses tend to be voluntary, they are said to be emitted rather than elicited as in classical conditioning. 1 To emit means to send forth.

Answer 25

False type of learning in which behavior is strengthened fi followed by reinforcement or diminished fi followed by punishment

Question 26

Thorndike laws: Law of effect Law of disuse Law of use Law of readiness

Answer 26

Thorndike's law of effect claims that "any behaviour that is followed by a positive/desirable consequence is likely to be repeated; any behaviour that is followed by a negative/undesirable consequence is less likely to be repeated". Motivation or Drive are important for operant conditioning to be effective. 1The law of use- the more frequently a learning situation is repeated, the better and more permanent the learning 1The law of disuse- the less frequently a learning situation is, the weaker the bond established between stimuli and responses. 1PRACTICE STRENGTHENS COMPETENCE AND LACK OF PRACTICE WEAKENS SKILLS Great question! Let’s break it down simply: The Law of Disuse (Thorndike’s Law) “The less frequently a learning situation is used, the weaker the bond between the stimulus and response.” What does “stimulus” and “response” mean? • Stimulus (S) = The thing that triggers an action → Example: Seeing a math question. • Response (R) = The action or behavior that follows → Example: Solving the math question. Putting it together: When you learn something, your brain forms a connection (or bond) between the stimulus and the response. • If you practice often, the bond stays strong — you respond quickly and correctly when the stimulus appears. • If you don’t practice (disuse), the bond weakens — you may forget what to do when you see the stimulus again. Example: • Stimulus: Seeing a bicycle • Response: Riding it If you stop riding a bicycle for years, the bond between the sight of the bike (stimulus) and riding (response) becomes weak — you may struggle a bit when you try again. Would you like a diagram or short way to remember it? Law of readiness states that a learner's satisfaction is determined by the extent of his preparatory set, that is, his readiness for Law of Readiness..... 1 This law was broken down into two: 1 1. When someone is ready to perform an act, to do so is satisfying. 12. When someone is ready to perform some act, but they’re not able to do it , it is so annoying. If you are ready or eager to do something but are prevented from doing it, it causes frustration or discomfort. → Example: You’re prepared to speak in a debate, but your chance is skipped — that feels frustrating, because you were ready. An interference with goal-directed behaviour causes frustration and making someone to do something he does not want to do is frustrating.

Question 27

Operant Conditioning 1 Like classical conditioning, we learn to associate two events or things together. 1 However, instead of the environment acting on us stimulus), We choose to act on the environment ("we operate on it") 1 ??Instead of an involuntary reflex (CC), operant conditioning deals with VOLUNTARY BEHAVIORS. 1 ??We may change our behaviour (aka LEARNING) based on the consequences that follow our choice: 1 POSITIVE (reinforcement or punishment) MEANS ADDING SOMETHING 7 NEGATIVE (reinforcement or punishment) MEANS TAKING SOMETHING AWAY 1 THEY DO NOT MEAN GOODOR BAD!

Question 28

What is positive and negative reinforcement What is positive and negative punishment

Answer 28

Positive: adding something nice to increase the likelihood of someone doing something Negative: taking away something not nice to increase or strengthen the likelihood of someone doing something Positive punishment: adding something not nice to decrease the likelihood of someone doing something Negative punishment(response cost) : removing something nice to decrease the likelihood of someone doing something

Question 29

Explain the levels of reinforcement

Answer 29

Levels of reinforcement 1 Primary Reinforcers -Satisfy biological needs eg food, water, etc Secondary Reinforcers -Conditioned reinforcement, associated with primary reinforcers (example is money and using it to buy water or food,etc) No problem! Let’s break it down in a very simple way, like a story: 1. Primary Reinforcers → Directly give you what your body needs. • Think of things that keep you alive or make your body feel good. • Example: You’re hungry → You eat food → You feel satisfied. 2. Secondary Reinforcers → Help you get the primary things. • They don’t satisfy your body directly, but they can be used to get the primary things. • Example: You get money → You use money to buy food → Then you eat → Then you’re satisfied. • So money itself isn’t food, but it’s valuable because it can help you get food. 3. Tertiary Reinforcers → Things that help you get secondary reinforcers. • These are even more abstract. They don’t give you food directly, and they aren’t even money. • But they give you fame, recognition, popularity, or status, which then helps you get money (secondary), which then gets you food (primary). • Example: • You become a popular influencer (tertiary) → Brands give you sponsorship money (secondary) → You use the money to buy food (primary). Another example: Type Simple Example Why it matters Primary Food You eat it directly Secondary Money You use it to buy food Tertiary Fame or status Helps you earn more money Would you like me to give you a real-life scenario using these three to make it clearer? Great question — now let’s connect primary, secondary, and tertiary reinforcers back to reinforcement and strengthening behavior. Reinforcement means increasing the chances that a behavior will happen again. And we do this by rewarding the behavior with something the person finds valuable — this “reward” is what we call a reinforcer. Now let’s plug in the levels: 1. Primary Reinforcers = Basic motivators • Example: A child studies → you give them food or a treat → they’re happy → they’re more likely to study again. • Why? Because the food is naturally satisfying, it reinforces the behavior. 2. Secondary Reinforcers = Learned motivators • Example: A student studies → you give them money or praise → they feel good → they study again. • Why? Because they’ve learned to associate money/praise with positive feelings (like being able to buy something or feel appreciated). • So, behavior is strengthened through the learned value of the reinforcer. 3. Tertiary Reinforcers = Indirect motivators • Example: A person works hard at their job to become famous or respected → this brings opportunities to earn money → which gets them things they want → they keep working hard. • Here, even though fame or respect isn’t food or money, it still motivates behavior because it indirectly leads to rewards. Key Point: All these levels strengthen behavior by motivating the person — some are direct (food), some are learned (money), and some are social or symbolic (fame/status). But in the end, they all act as reinforcers, meaning they increase the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated. Would you like a short story-based example to see how this works in real life?

Question 30

What are schedules of reinforcement State them Which of them causes a sustained behavior? Which of them will easily change behavior?

Answer 30

Schedules of reinforcement are timetables that determine when a response will be reinforced 1 Continuous Reinforcement Schedule:(will easily change behavior. Extinction is also faster here ) Reinforcer is delivered every time a particular response occurs. 1 Partial or Intermittent Reinforcement(will maintain or sustain a change in behavior for a longer period of time) Schedule: Reinforcement is given only some of the time. Reinforcement Schedules Fixed Ratio (FR): Reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses. Eg. A sales person receives a bonus for a every 4th laptop he sells 1 Variable Ratio (VR): The number of responses required for reinforcement varies. E.g. winning the lottery.

Question 31

Explain habituation with regards to reinforcement and punishment

Answer 31

Great! Let’s clarify how habituation fits into reinforcement and punishment. What is Habituation? Habituation means getting used to a stimulus, so over time it has less effect on you. Example: • At first, you notice a loud clock ticking in a room. • But after a while, your brain tunes it out — that’s habituation. How does this relate to reinforcement and punishment? Even reinforcers or punishers can lose their power if they’re used too often or become predictable — this is habituation in reinforcement/punishment. 1. Habituation in Reinforcement: • A reinforcer (like praise, food, or money) may become less effective if it’s given too often or without variation. • Example: If a child gets a candy every time they do homework, eventually the candy may not feel special anymore, so the child might not feel motivated — the behavior (homework) weakens. 2. Habituation in Punishment: • If a punishment (like scolding or time-out) is used repeatedly, the person may get used to it, and it stops discouraging the behavior. • Example: A student is always yelled at for talking in class. Eventually, they may stop caring — the punishment loses its effect. Why it matters: • It reminds us that reinforcement and punishment should be varied or adjusted. • Using different types of reinforcers, or applying them unexpectedly, helps keep them effective. • The same goes for punishment — if it’s overused or predictable, people become desensitized. Quick Tip to Prevent Habituation in Behavior Change: • Use different rewards. • Use reinforcement randomly sometimes (called variable reinforcement). • Mix praise with tangible rewards. • Avoid overusing punishment — guide behavior instead. Would you like me to explain how habituation differs from extinction in behavior theory too?

Question 32

State the applications of classical and operant conditioning

Answer 32

Great! Let’s walk through these applications of classical and operant conditioning in simple terms, then clarify what you might mean by “warding tardy bell.” Applications of Classical and Operant Conditioning: 1. Bell and Pad Treatment for Enuresis (Bedwetting) • Type: Classical Conditioning • How it works: • A moisture-sensitive pad is placed on the bed. • When the child wets the bed, the pad triggers a bell (alarm). • Over time, the brain links bladder fullness (before wetting) with waking up to go to the toilet, not just wetting. • So eventually, the child learns to wake up before wetting the bed. 2. Flooding and Systematic Desensitization (for Phobias) • Type: Classical Conditioning • Flooding: Exposing someone to their fear all at once (intense, fast). • E.g., putting a person with a dog phobia in a room with a dog. • Systematic Desensitization: Gradual exposure while teaching relaxation. • E.g., start with a picture of a dog, then a video, then seeing a dog from afar, then being near a dog, etc. 3. Token Economies • Type: Operant Conditioning • How it works: • People earn tokens for good behavior. • Later, they exchange tokens for rewards (e.g., snacks, privileges). • Often used in schools, therapy, or psychiatric settings. 4. Behavior Modification Programs (Applied Behavior Analysis – ABA) • Type: Operant Conditioning (mostly) • A structured approach to identify, measure, and change behaviors. • Used especially for autism, classroom behavior, addiction, etc. • Involves reinforcing good behavior, and discouraging bad behavior using reinforcers, punishments, and shaping. “Ahh, now I get it! You meant “Waring Tardy Bell” in the context of enuresis (bedwetting) — it’s likely a misspelling or alternate phrasing of “Waring Tarry Bell”, which is a common bedwetting alarm system. So let’s explain that clearly: Waring Tardy Bell (or Bedwetting Alarm) This is part of the Bell and Pad Treatment used for children with enuresis (bedwetting) — and it’s based on classical conditioning. How it works: • A bell/alarm device is attached to the child’s clothing or a moisture-sensitive pad under the bedsheet. • When urine moisture is detected, the alarm rings (called the “tardy bell” or “warning bell”). • This wakes the child up, interrupting the act of urinating in bed. Why it’s used (Classical Conditioning): • Over time, the child’s body learns to associate a full bladder (stimulus) with the need to wake up and use the toilet before wetting occurs. • The alarm becomes a conditioned stimulus, helping the child develop better bladder control while asleep. Reinforcement element: • Parents may reward the child for dry nights — adding operant conditioning (positive reinforcement) to support progress. Would you like a diagram or step-by-step flow of how it trains the child’s brain? Or want me to simplify this into a short summary for study notes?

Question 33

Great! Here are two more health-related examples for you to analyze: Example 3: Dental Drill & Anxiety A man goes to the dentist for a filling. During the procedure, the drill causes pain. After a few visits, he starts feeling anxious whenever he hears the sound of the dental drill, even if no procedure is being done yet. Example 4: Medication & Taste Aversion A patient is given a certain flavored drink before taking a strong medication. The medication causes nausea as a side effect. After repeated use, the patient starts feeling nauseous whenever they drink that flavored drink, even when not taking the medication. Now try to identify the NS, UCS, UCR, CS, and CR for each! Let me know what you come up with.

Answer 33

Here are the answers for each example: Example 3: Dental Drill & Anxiety • Neutral Stimulus (NS): The sound of the dental drill (initially doesn’t cause anxiety) • Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): The pain from the dental procedure • Unconditioned Response (UCR): Anxiety due to the pain • Conditioned Stimulus (CS): The sound of the dental drill (after repeated pairing with pain) • Conditioned Response (CR): Anxiety when hearing the dental drill, even without pain Example 4: Medication & Taste Aversion • Neutral Stimulus (NS): The flavored drink • Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): The medication (which causes nausea) • Unconditioned Response (UCR): Nausea caused by the medication • Conditioned Stimulus (CS): The flavored drink (after repeated pairing with nausea) • Conditioned Response (CR): Feeling nauseous when drinking the flavored drink, even without the medication Let me know if you’d like more examples!

Question 34

For intelligence topic The characteristics of good intelligence are five. State them and define them

Answer 34

SNORV S- standardization N-Norms: Yes, exactly! Norms establish what is considered a “normal” or average score by testing a large, representative sample. Once the average is determined, individual scores can be compared to see if someone falls within the normal range, above it (high intelligence), or below it (cognitive difficulties). Or So for Norms, you’re determining what is the normal score and seeing which people deviate??? O-objectivity R-reliability V-validit