Colonial policy and nationalism interwar, 1914-1947 Flashcards
(29 cards)
Economic impacts of WWI on Britain
o Almost 1 million Britons died during WWI. This loss of manpower meant that it was harder to maintain stability in the colonies through military force, meaning that nationalist movements had a greater chance of success/hindering British control.
o The war costed £35,000 million (13 x the cost of the Second Boer War) because of the production of armaments etc.
Rise of Irish nationalism and impact on Empire
o Easter Rising, 1916 – Irish Republicans proclaimed a provisional government in Dublin, and characterise British rule as oppressive and unwanted (calls the British colonial administration ‘an alien government, which have divided a minority from the majority in the past’) – the British response is very harsh and further alienates Irish nationalists, with 3500 being arrested and 15 executed
o In 1918, there is a general election which puts 73 sinn fein MPs in power. They declare an Irish republic and their army (IRA) begins a guerrilla war against the British. After lots more negotiation and civil war, the republicans are defeated in 1922 and Ireland is declared a dominion.
o This was the first time Britain had had to concede to self-government following armed struggle, encouraging other nationalists around the empire (and especially in India) to follow suit and challenge British rule more openly and perhaps aggressively
o In 1937, the Irish Free State became a Republic
Creation of the mandates: what were they and what were they categorised as?
o As a result of the post-war peace-treaties, the British Empire was extended by 1.8m square miles and had a new 13 million subjects under its rule – WWI arguably strengthened the Empire through an extended geographical reach
o Britain gained control of Palestine, Transjordan, Iraq (Mesopotamia), parts of Cameroon, Togo and Tanganyika
o Palestine and Mesopotamia were considered part of category A (meaning that independence was viable in the near future), and Cameroon, Togoland and Tanganyika were considered part of category B (meaning that they needed to be developed for longer in order for independence to be a possibility)
Sykes-Picot agreement
o The Sykes-Picot agreement was a secret deal between two French and British diplomats to divide up the Middle East between them, despite convincing the Arabs to rebel against the Turkish empire by promising them their freedom (including ‘Laurence of Arabia’) – the deal secured Jordan, Southern Iraq, and Palestine for the British (so arguably strengthened empire), but also arguably destabilised the empire through increasing people’s perception of it as exploitative and fraudulent (though Laurence of Arabia was for a long time glorified and his fraud not revealed)
Balfour Declaration and consequences for Palestine
o The Balfour declaration of 1917 was a letter sent by the Foreign Secretary and then reproduced in the press: it expressed sympathy with Zionist aspirations, promising British support for a ‘national homeland’ for the Jews in Palestine (though on the conditions that this would not undermine Arab rights) – it was arguably a means of securing the support of both Russia (who had many Jewish leaders) and America (whose Jewish population was 5m) for the remaining period of WWI
o A British sponsored Zionist Commission arrived in Palestine in 1918, and as a response Muslims and Christian Arabs formed the Muslim-Christian association between 1918 and 1920. There were violent clashes between both sides.
o Jewish immigration increases significantly, with the total Jewish population in Palestine reaching 9% by 1918 and around 1/3 by 1936
How did Britain initially flip flop and change sides? And what efforts were made to keep peace?
The Passfield Paper of 1930 then goes against the Balfour Declaration of 1917 by promising that Palestinian land wouldn’t be comprised – the two promises are evidently incompatible
The British-appointed High Commissioner Herbert Samuel tried to bring both Arabs and Jews into elected representative bodies with influence over government policy (but ethnic tension meant that this cooperation wasn’t possible)
Evidence of the Palestinian mandate being a military burden to the British (and also of repression of natives)
o In 1936, Britain sent 20,000 troops to Palestine to deal with Arab insurgency and attacks on Jews (example of the mandate being a military and economic burden on the empire)
o From 1937-9, the British continue their suppression mostly of Arab resistance, with over 9000 Arabs being arrested and over 100 hanged (example of the mandate being a military burden, but also British colonial policy in the interwar period being repressive generally)
Example of the British changing to the Palestinian side for the second time
In 1939, Britain changes policy and proposes a Palestinian state in which the Jewish population would enjoy a ‘national homeland’.
In 1939, they also impose restrictions on Jewish immigration; only 15,000 are let in per year for five years (the aim is that Palestine could be declared an independent state wtih an Arab-majority still in 10 years time)
Lead up to withdrawal and withdrawal from Palestine
o In July 1946, 91 people were killed when the paramilitary Zionist organisation Irgun planted a bomb in the basement of the King David Hotel in Jerusalem (which served as the mandate headquarters) – some 800 suspected activists are put in detention
o In 1947, the British announce their departure from Palestine following the intensification of religious conflict between Jews and Muslim Arabs
Evidence of the Iraqi mandate being a military burden to the British (and also of repression of natives)
o In 1920, British military supress Muslim demonstrations against British rule in Baghdad which had turned into a full-scale revolt – there are about 5000 deaths in total
Political concessions in Iraq
o In 1922, Falsa I is made king, and this is a good move by the British because he was a renowned Muslim and Arab leader but also with a good relationship with the British – example of the British successfully maintaining stability
o In 1932, the Kingdom of Iraq gains independence under King Faisal, but Britain manages to retain their influence especially in their control of the oil industry
Evidence of support from the dominions in WWI (WWI didn’t necessarily weaken British control)
a) Canada supplied the British with 1/3 of munitions used by the British in France from 1917-18
b) 136,000 white South African troops fought in the Middle east and on the Western Front
Evidence of a lack of support from the dominions during WWI (or potential bad consequences)
a) After heavy losses in 1915, morale dropped and significantly less people wanted to volunteer, causing conscription to be introduced in New Zealand in 1916 and Canada in 1917
b) The Australians voted against conscription in the two referendums of 1916 and 1917
c) The death toll for those in the dominions is very high, creating an expectation that independence will be granted by the British (possibly) – 61,000 Canadians die and 7000 South Africans
Key two examples of the dominions wanting autonomy over their own affairs
o In 1922, Canada and South Africa refuse to back British policy in defending the straits of Chanak – signifies an increasing desire amongst the dominions to control their own affairs independent of Britain
o Canada signs the Halibut Fisheries Treaty in 1923 and negotiate it as an independent nation – Britain allows them to do so
British response to the dominions wanting autonomy and further evidence of their lack of interest
o Following the Chanak incident, Britain decides not to include the dominions in the subsequent peace treaty of Lausanne in 1924 – as a result, both Canada and the Irish Free State decline to accept any binding responsibility for the agreement (signifies declining sense of loyalty and allegiance to Britain)
o The dominions expressed their wish not to be involved in the negotiations of the Treaty of Locarno in 1925, which was about German frontiers and preventing the remilitarisation of the Rhineland (the dominions were far away from this region and had little interest in it)
Balfour Definition
o The Balfour Definition in 1926 redefined what it meant to be a British dominion – they are ‘autonomous Communities’ and only united through ‘a common allegiance to the Crown’ – huge political concession (though its only put into law in 1931 with the Statute of Westminster)
Statute of Westminster and response (from dominions and Churchill)
o The Statute of Westminster then formally puts the Balfour Definition into law, saying that the dominions can make their own laws and that Britain cannot impose any laws on them (legal definition of independence) – in Canada, South Africa, and the Irish Free State, the Act comes immediately into effect (showing that independence from Britain is something desperately longed for amongst the Dominions)
o Winston Churchill calls the statute ‘pedantic, painful, and to some extent, almost repellent’ – the statute arguably weakened the empire by setting a precedent for others and suggesting that Britain aren’t going to fight for Empire with the same strength any longer (though this argument in limited because the dominions are all white, and so other colonies like India may not aspire to the same level of independence)
Evidence of Ottawa failing to increase trade with dominions
o The Ottawa system isn’t always very effective in strengthening economic ties with the dominions; Britain takes 48.4% of South Africa’s exports in 1929 but only 38.8% in 1938
Growing nationalism in Australia and Canada
o In Australia, unemployment shot towards 30%, causing the government to call for the nationalisation of banks and insurance companies. Additionally, a labour government was in power in Australia for the first time since 1916, and labour potentially tends away from pro-British policy (though still quite culturally attached to Britain)
o John W. Dafoe is the leading voice of liberalism in Canada, and was the editor of ‘Manitoba Free Press’
Growing nationalism in South Africa
o 1912 saw the founding of what was later named the African National Congress – the organisation took much influence from the passive resistance of the INC
o Serious uprisings in South Africa in 1914 and 1915 confirmed hostilities that emerged during the South African War still existed.
o At the 1917 Imperial War Conference, Jan Smuts of South Africa called for a conference when the war ended to discuss full political and diplomatic autonomy for the dominions
o Hertzog (leader of South Africa) pushes for the Balfour Definition at the 1926 imperial conference
Response to the Statute of Westminster showing continued loyalty
o The response to the Statute of Westminster shows continued loyalty to Britain; there was mixed support for the statute in Australia and New Zealand, so only became law in 1942 and 1947 respectively, and Newfoundland simply rejected the statute and reverted to crown control – this could also be an example of British policy being effective in strengthening colonial ties, as the political concession actually had the adverse effect of making the dominions more loyal
Ottawa showing strong/strengthening ties with the Dominions
o 1932 Ottawa conference: the resulting Ottawa system introduced a 10% tax on all imports but the Crown colonies – closer economic ties between the dominions: imports from the dominions increase from 16.9% (1925-29) to 24.3% (1934-38)
Limitations to nationalism
o Any nationalism in Australia and New Zealand is very mild and indirect (ie responding to internal issues like unemployment but not proactively trying to pursue anti-British policies)
o John W. Dafoe is the leading voice of liberalism, yet is still pretty pro-British (he saw Australia’s future as one of the ‘British Nations’)
Nationalism in Egypt (threatening or not)
o In 1919 there was a country wide revolution by the Egyptians and Sudanese against the British occupation which involved widespread rioting and civil disobedience – attacks on military bases, civilian facilities and personnel resulted in at least 800 Egyptian deaths
o The nationalist leader Saad Zaghlul Pasha and other members of his party were exiled as a result of the civil disobedience – though the exile could show that Britain were successful in terms of containing nationalism and maintaining order
o Egypt gains independence in 1922 (shows that nationalism is threatening as Britain is willing to withdraw despite economic value of Egypt due to cotton and Suez – administration and government must have been made very difficult) but relations with Britain remain strained as they fail to recognise full Egyptian sovereignty in Sudan, and keep interfering with political matters (i.e., opposing Saad Zaghlul Pasha’s return)
