Decolonisation in the Dominions, Middle East, and Asia Flashcards
(35 cards)
Ireland - nationalism (Easter Rising)
o Easter Rising, 1916 – Irish Republicans proclaimed a provisional government in Dublin, and characterise British rule as oppressive and unwanted (calls the British colonial administration ‘an alien government’) – anti-imperialist resistance puts pressure on the British government and forces them to commit military resources to the repression of nationalism (knowing that they cannot maintain this level of commitment because its during WWI and Britain is under heavy military and economic pressure)
Ireland - nationalism (elections and civil war)
o In 1918, there is a general election which puts 73 sinn fein MPs in power (showing rise of nationalism and public support for the republicans).
o Instead of taking their seats in the British Parliament, they declare an Irish republic and their army (IRA) begins a guerrilla war against the British – nature of the civil war particularly destabilising as ambushes and brutal tactics were commonplace – making Ireland hard to rule
o After years of brutal civil war, Ireland is declared a self-governing dominion in 1921 with the Anglo-Irish treaty. British concession of self-government following armed struggle against the Irish republicans shows the impact of nationalism in driving political change, paving the way for formal independence (became effectively independent after the 1931 Statute of Westminster, and formally became a republic in 1937)
Irish Free State (asserting political autonomy during the interwar years)
o The Irish Free State, along with Canada, refused to bind themselves to the Treaty of Lausanne in 1924 because the dominions were excluded from the negotiations. Then in 1925, the Irish Free State joins the other dominions in opting out of negotiations of the Treaty of Locarno because it doesn’t want to be involved in British/European politics. These assertions of political autonomy and independence from Britain, driven by the increasingly prominent nationalists at home, put pressure on the British to make political concessions (like with the 1931 Statute)
Ireland - nationalist weaknesses
o The Easter Rising was quickly suppressed and failed in its aim of setting up a republic (as Ireland remained a colony)
o The nationalists didn’t end up getting what they wanted (full independence as a republic) with the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921, showing that nationalist resistance wasn’t enough to drive formal decolonisation itself. This only came after the 1931 Statute of Westminster (which was willingly produced by the British government, and gave the dominions full legislative powers meaning that they could even legislate out their ‘common allegiance to the crown’) – this delayed and considered response shows how formal decolonisation was driven by metropolitan factors ultimately
Ireland - metropolitan factors
o The British response to the Easter Rising is very harsh and further alienates Irish nationalists, with 3500 being arrested and 15 executed – these executions and the anti-imperialist sentiment they generate helps Sinn Fein win a clear majority in the 1918 election (so nationalism is a result of British actions, which here are very obviously repression)
o The British attempt to impose conscription on Ireland in April 1918, and are subsequently met with heavy resistance from nationalists – so metropolitan actions pave the way for decolonisation through heightening nationalist sentiment (evident in the 1918 general election and results)
o The Anglo-Irish Treaty concedes dominion status, showing how British political concessions paved the way for independence eventually – gradually introduced political autonomy, but on their terms not on the nationalists’ terms
o 1931 Statute of Westminster shows how the change in British policy and their new willingness to accept the political/legislative autonomy of the dominions is what lead to formal decolonisation in Ireland (republic declared in 1937)
Ireland - international environment
o WWI pressures were relevant in causing Britain to realise that they didn’t have the military/financial means of consistently suppressing republican resistance, so therefore had to concede dominion status (1921) in order to reduce disturbances (but counter with that this fact – Britain’s military distraction – was something tactically used by the nationalists to push for independence – so really its just nationalism)
o Also, WWI heightened nationalism because of the necessity of conscription and this making Irish people realise that they are being exploited by an ‘alien’ imperial power – 1918 conscription law
The Dominions - nationalism (Canada)
o John W. Dafoe is the leading voice of liberalism in Canada, and expresses views through his popular newspaper Manitoba Free Press – pressure for more political autonomy
o In 1922, Canada and South Africa refuse to support Britain’s position in defending the Straits of Chanak – assertation of military and political autonomy which puts pressure on Britain to make formal concessions – so, you can view the Balfour Definition and Statute of Westminster, not as marking a change in British policy, but as more of a passive acceptance of what was already the political reality (i.e., Britain’s waning influence and political control)
o In 1923, Canada negotiates and signs the Halibut Fisheries Treaty with the USA independently of Britain – the Canadian PM (King) insists on signing it without a British countersignature, breaking standard empire practice
The Dominions - nationalism (South Africa)
o In 1912, the African National Congress is founded (representing South Africa), and takes much influence from the passive resistance methods used by the INC
o In 1914 and 1915 there were serious nationalist, anti-imperialist uprisings in South Africa, placing pressure on Britain to concede more legislative freedom to the dominions
o Hertzog (leader of South Africa) puts pressure on Britain to give the dominions full political autonomy at the 1926 Imperial Conference, subsequently leading to the 1926 Balfour Definition, which is then put into legislation in the 1931 Statute of Westminster
The Dominions - nationalist weaknesses
o John W. Dafoe is the leading liberal voice in Canada, yet not actually that radical/anti-imperialist – he wants more political autonomy, but still sees Canada’s future as one of the ‘British nations’
o Nationalism is mostly non-violent and just subtle assertions of political separation from Britain – its not like the dominions were making British rule completely unbearable/unmanageable because of disruptive resistance movements etc., so Britain’s political concessions can be seen more as a considered change of policy – therefore, decolonisation is British-led
the Dominions - metropolitan factors
o 1926 Balfour Definition (‘autonomous communities’ though with a ‘common allegiance to the crown) and 1931 Statute of Westminster (dominions have full legislative power, with the British government no longer being able to propose/veto laws) – change of British imperial policy not a response to nationalism
The dominions - external factors
The support the dominions gave to Britain in terms of manpower and military resources created an expectation in them that they should be granted more political power. So you can link the assertions of political autonomy in the 1920s, for instance, to WWI arguably…
a) Canada supplied the British with 1/3 of munitions used by the British in France from 1917-18
b) 136,000 white South African troops fought in the Middle east and on the Western Front
c) The death toll for those in the dominions is very high, creating an expectation that independence will be granted by the British (possibly) – 61,000 Canadians die and 7000 South Africans
Egypt - nationalism
o There was widespread rioting in 1919 after the nationalist Saad Zaghuls Pasha and other members of his party (Wafd) were exiled, making Egypt very hard to govern – there were attacks on British military bases and civilian facilities, and 800 Egyptians ended up dying because of the resistance and British suppression – nationalism means that the British have to make large military commitments in order to maintain order, causing them to realise that staying isn’t worth it and that keeping influence over Suez but granting independence is actually much more cost effective (though could be argued then that its British actions)
o Egypt gets independence in 1922, not very long after, showing how nationalist resistance was a direct trigger for decolonisation
Egypt - nationalist weaknesses
o Many elites collaborated with the British against the Wafd, showing how nationalism wasn’t that united, and you can see this in the fact the riots weren’t that successful (i.e., they were crushed with 800 Egyptian deaths) thus Britain handing over formal independence was because of them actively making the decision
Egypt - metropolitan factors
o The revolts in 1919 were because the British exiled the nationalist leader Saad Zaghuls Pasha and other members of his party, Wafd. Therefore, the nationalist resistance which put pressure on the government to withdraw can ultimately be traced back down to Britain’s politically repressive policy.
Iraq - nationalism
o There was a Muslim revolt in Baghdad against the British in 1920. Though it ended up failing, with around 5000 Iraqi deaths, it arguably caused decolonisation through making the British realise that the cost of colonial rule wasn’t worth it and that it would be much better to retain economic influence without having to use military power to suppress revolts etc (Britain had to use air power to quell the revolt)
Iraq - nationalist weaknesses
o The revolt in Iraq fails, resulting in 5000 Iraqi deaths, showing how nationalism wasn’t that threatening and thus can’t have been that significant in causing decolonisation. Additionally, the revolt was in 1920 but formal independence only granted in 1932 – over a decade gap surely shows how the causation can’t have been that direct
Iraq - metropolitan factors
o Britain arguably paved way for independence via constitution mongering early on; at the 1921 Cairo Conference, Britain included some Arab representation and allowed some level of self-government (though Britain still maintained control over military and foreign affairs etc) – creates momentum for political change
o Anglo-Iraqi treaty of 1922 paved the way for independence through setting up Faisal I as king. He was a Muslim leader who was respected by a lot of Arabs and has previously ruled Syria (yet had good relations with the British), so putting him in power was an example of the idea of ‘trusteeship’ – giving Arabs increasingly more experience in government so that independence could be eventually given once a country was ‘ready’
Iraq - the international environment
o Arguably World War One was the real cause of nationalism because it fuelled nationalism through the interwar period. During WWI, British commanders (like Laurence of Arabia) promised that they would support Arab independence in return for their support against the Ottomans, but then completely went against this with the Sykes Picot agreement which secretly split up the Middle East between Britain and France. Therefore, nationalism (and also British policy) can be traced back to the circumstances of WWI.
Burma - nationalism
o Nationalism always pretty strong and it was hard for Britain to take Burma in the first place. In 1942, Burmese nationalists were even willing to cooperate with Japan when it took over the country
o The forces of the Anti-Fascist Organisation (AFO) initially supported the Japanese during WWII – it was a coalition of Burmese forces, including the Burmese National Army led by Aung San – shows nationalism was distinctly anti-British and even more threatening because Burmese nationalists were working with strong foreign powers. Additionally, fact that you have so many different nationalist parties yet working under the same organisation (the AFO) shows how nationalism was a strong, united force, and thus perceived as more threatening by the British (encouraging them to withdraw before even more conflict emerged)
o The AFO is renamed the Anti-Fascist People’s Freedom League in 1945 and resists British imperial rule, especially in later 1946 with civil disobedience increasing and making the country much harder to govern – thus nationalism prompted independence in 1948
o Elections in 1948 for a Constituent Assembly produce a huge AFPFL majority, showing how strong nationalist sentiment was in Burma – convinced the British administrators that self-government needed to be handed over or the population would revolt
Malaya - nationalism
o The United Malays National Organisation formed in 1946 to argue for the rights of native Malays.
o Frightened by the idea of nationalism effecting rubber plantations the British created the federation of Malay in 1948 establishing a ‘Federation of Malaya executive council’ and a ‘Federation of Malaya legislative council’
o A state of emergency was called by the British government in 1948 to try and quell nationalism through terror. The conflict was between the communist pro-independence fighters of the Malayan National Liberation Army, and the forces of the Federation of Malaya and Britain.
o The Malayan emergency caused 1443 British deaths in total (largest loss of life of UK personnel since WWII)
o In 1951, the British High Commissioner was assassinated – demonstrates the violent, anti-imperialist nature of nationalism
o To keep support during the Malay Emergency, the British had make promises of Malay independence, showing how nationalism put pressure on the British government to make political concessions
o In the 1955 elections, the Malays and Chinese (who had united against the British) won 81% of the votes – Britain therefore feared than if imperial rule continued, there would be a military rebellion, so granted Malayan independence in 1957.
Singapore - nationalism
o In 1955, the conservative Singapore Progressive Party (SPP) only won 3 seats (despite previously dominating the legislative council) and several new left-wing parties emerged, including the Labour Front (10 seats)
o In 1956, Lim Yew Hock (new leader of this left-wing grouping) convinced the British to implement full internal self-government (though remaining part of the Empire) through taking strong action against the communists – led to the 1958 State of Singapore Act, which paved the way for the incorporation to Malaysia in 1963 and then full independence as its own country in 1965
Burma - nationalist weaknesses
o Different factions within the AFPFL couldn’t agree on Burma’s path and in July 1947 Aung San and six of his cabinet ministers were assassinated by a rival political faction – therefore, nationalism wasn’t united at all so independence in 1948 wasn’t because of effective nationalist campaigning and negotiating, but because of Britain choosing not to leave a politically unstable region (though counter with the fact that the assassination of Aung San actually heightened nationalism and anti-Britishness – it was less united, yes, but much more violent, with civil war essentially breaking out and Burma even rejecting the idea of joining the commonwealth)
Ceylon (Sri Lanka) - metropolitan factors
o Ceylon enjoyed a large franchise and elected majority in the legislative from 1923 – so, British ideas of trusteeship and gradually ‘preparing’ natives for self-rule through increasing their political powers is what led to decolonisation. There wasn’t really any nationalism involved, and independence was given in February 1948.
o I could also use the consistency in when decolonisation happened (i.e., both Burma and Ceylon within a month of each other) yet inconsistency in terms of how strong nationalism was to demonstrate how the granting of independence was more something driven by change in British policy (i.e., post WWII and cutting off colonies that weren’t worth it)
Burma - metropolitan factors
o The new liberal Governor General, Sir Hubert Rance, dealt with the anti-British strikes in late 1946 by meeting with Aung San and convincing him to join the governor’s Executive Council along with other members of the AFPFL.
o Aung San is effectively placed in charge of the council by Sir Hubert Rance, giving it renewed credibility and thus enabling negotiations for independence to properly begin. This shows the active effort made by the British to peacefully bring about independence.
o By December 1946, Clement Atlee says that Britain will not commit any further troops to Burma, meaning that the AFPFL cannot be crushed so therefore negotiation and the granting of independence is the only possible way forward
o Independence in January 1948
