Decolonisation in Africa by region (detailed) Flashcards
(33 cards)
1
Q
Sierra Leone - nationalism
A
- Sierra Leone became independent in 1961, and Dr Milton Margai’s Sierra Leone People’s Party won a large majority in the 1962 elections – the fact that a large majority was one shows how nationalism in Sierra Leone was relatively strong/united, and therefore encouraged Britain to grant independence through the reassurance that handing over power would be fairly easy
2
Q
The Gold Coast - nationalism
A
- Nkrumah founds his own Convention People’s Party in 1949 and organises a campaign of ‘positive action’, inspired by Gandhian methods of protest (strikes and boycotts)
- Effectively organising this campaign earns him the respect of Sir Charles Arden Clarke, who recognises his role as representative nationalist leader and releases him from prison (1951), giving him the title ‘Leader of government business’ (which in 1952 becomes called PM)
- In 1951, the CPP won 2/3 of the seats in the Legislative Assembly, showing that nationalism was united and strong
- By effectively campaigning for his party and winning both the 1954 and 1956 elections in the Gold Coast, Nkrumah convinces the British that African nationalist leadership/governance is sufficiently stable and united. Subsequently, the Gold Coast becomes independent in 1957 as Ghana.
3
Q
Nigeria - nationalism
A
- Dr Nmandi Azikiwe was a key nationalist leader in Nigeria who had his own political grouping, the National Council for Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC).
- Azikiwe protested the repressive Richard’s constitution (introduced in 1946) in London, helping to pressurise Britain to reform it with the Macpherson’s constitution in 1951.
- He helped bring about decolonisation through unifying the nationalist movement and bridging cultural/political divisions within Nigeria, meaning that Britain then trusted native government enough to transfer power (idea of trusteeship); none of the three political parties could get enough votes to form a majority on their own, so Dr Azikiwe negotiated a deal with the NPC so that a coalition government between the NPC and NCNC could jointly govern.
- This then enabled independence in 1960, with Dr Azikiwe agreeing to serve the largely honorary post of president of the Senate under the deputy leader of the NPC, Abukabar Tafawa Balewa, who became Prime Minister (so Azikiwe also made political sacrifices for the good of the nationalist movement)
4
Q
Nigeria - nationalist weaknesses
A
- In Nigeria, the nationalist movement was hindered by internal tensions between different cultures and political parties. For instance, the NCNC and NPC often came into conflict, meaning that the British authorities didn’t perceived Nigeria as ‘ready’ to move to full native self-government.
5
Q
Sierra Leone - nationalist weaknesses
A
- Despite Margai’s Sierra Leone People’s Party winning a large majority in the 1962 elections, nationalism was actually very divided, suggesting that Britain granted independence despite the complexities of native rule by the nationalists, not because of effective nationalist pressure. For instance, tensions between the original colony, round the part of Freetown, and the larger area of the protectorate gained during the scramble were very high and persisted into the 1960s, with an armed coup overthrowing the government in 1978
6
Q
The Gambia - metropolitan factors
A
- The Gambia was scarcely viable economically, very small, and surrounded by French-occupied Senegal. So, independence in 1965 wasn’t due to nationalist pressure, but due to Britain genuinely considering whether the cost of maintaining the colony was worth in terms of its limited economic/strategic value. So, it was a policy driven thing.
7
Q
The Gold Coast - metropolitan factors
A
- In 1946, the Burns Constitution was drawn up in the Gold Coast, and it established a Legislative Council of 12 British nominees and 18 elected African members (huge breakthrough and British led – not a response to nationalism arguably because Nkrumah hadn’t founded his CPP or led positive action yet) – so this is Britain making political concessions which pave the way for decolonisation
- Sir Charles Arden Clarke helps pave the way for formal decolonisation through willingly appeasing nationalism and promoting liberal reform. He recognises Kwame Nkrumah and the CPP’s legitimacy in representing popular opinion, so releases Nkrumah from prison in 1951 after his ‘positive action’ campaign. Clarke also gave him the title ‘Leader of Government Business’, then of Prime Minister in 1952, paving the way for independence in 1957 under Nkrumah’s very own leadership - demonstrates how the making of political concessions and granting of independence was an active decision taken by the British government and its colonial administrators, rather than a reluctant and passive outcome of nationalist pressure
8
Q
Nigeria - metropolitan factors
A
1960 through ‘constitution mongering’’ - John Stuart Macpherson was responsible for replacing the Richards Constitution in 1951 with the much more liberal Macpherson constitution, which provided for ‘semi-responsible government’. It extended the right to vote and created a National Council of Ministers, answerable to a 185-seat Federal House of Representatives.. By making such political concessions, he paved the way for independence (even if this was unintentional, and the real aim was to hinder nationalism and keep control)
9
Q
The Gold Coast - the international environment
A
- The granting of independence in 1957 was linked to suspicions about Nkrumah’s communist sympathies, and a fear that if Britain delayed independence for too long, then the Gold Coast would resent the West even more so and possibly ally with the Soviets (Cold war context)
- Nkrumah had become radicalised whilst in London and had even met with leading British communists such as Harry Politt.
- Nkrumah was watched by the U.S. State Department and by MI5, partly because of his establishment of and involvement in a group called ‘The Circle’, which aimed to create a Union of African Socialist Republics – so suspicions around communist sympathies weren’t a stretch
- Link this to Macmillan’s ‘Wind of Change’ speech (1960) where he explicitly pointed to the Cold War as a factor driving the move to decolonisation in Africa – he questions whether the ‘uncommitted peoples of Asia and Africa will swing to the East or to the West’
10
Q
Uganda - nationalism
A
- The young Kabaka, Mutesa II, opposed the British Governor, Sir Andrew Cohen, on behalf of the rights of the Buganda people. He opposed the British especially in 1953 against the possibility of creating an East African Federation. His exile in 1953 by Sir Andrew Cohen further fuelled nationalist anti-British sentiment.
- In 1960, Apolo Milton Obote and his Uganda People’s Congress (UPC) takes over.
- Helped overcome divisions in Ugandan nationalism by accepting a constitution in 1962 that granted federal status within Uganda to five traditional kingdoms, including Buganda, which was initially the UPC’s main opposition – so conceded power in order to create unified government and enable independence in 1962
11
Q
Nationalism - Kenya (Mau Mau)
A
- The Mau Mau Uprising is from 1952-60, and consists of guerrilla warfare against the British triggered by economic stresses about land
- 70% of the 1.5million Kikuyus took the Mau Mau oath, showing how nationalism was widespread and united
- Whilst only 32 whites were killed, Mau Mau violence was threatening enough to provoke brutal retaliation: according to official estimates, between 1952 and 1956, 11-12,000 Africans were killed. So, nationalism drives independence because it provokes British violence, which causes international embarrassment, strengthens Kenyan anti-Britishness, and makes clear to the British that Kenya was essentially ungovernable without committing a lot more money and military resources into controlling a resentful indigenous population
12
Q
Nationalism - Kenya (nationalist leadership)
A
- Kenyatta returns to Kenya in 1946 to become President of the Kenya Africa Union and tours the country campaigning for the return of land given to white settlers – spreads nationalist sentiment, catalysing the Mao Mao Uprising which made the British revalue the cost-benefit of empire (given the cost of supressing disturbances) and also internationally embarrassed them
- Independence was also given in 1963 under Kenyatta’s leadership, so his popularity and competence evidently made the British trust that African majority rule would work
13
Q
Tanganyika - nationalism
A
- The Tanganyika African National Union is formed by Julius Nyerere, advocating for peaceful pan-African nationalism (inspired by Nkrumah)
- TANU becomes the dominant political force, winning 70/71 elected seats in the 1958-9 elections
- The united and strong nature of nationalism convinces the British government that handing over full political autonomy will be a smooth and beneficial transition, so independence is granted in 1961 under Nyerere
14
Q
Nationalist weaknesses - Uganda and Kenya
A
Uganda
* Huge tribal divisions (especially between the Buganda and Bunyoro tribes) meant that nationalism was very divided – the British arguably played off these divisions too (i.e., by deporting Mutesa II, who was supported only by the Buganda tribe)
Kenya
* There were several non-kikuyu tribes which didn’t see the Mau Mau uprising as a national rebellion and didn’t engage with it.
15
Q
Metropolitan factors - Uganda
A
- Sir Andrew Cohen’s deporting of the Kabaka (Mutesa II) in 1953 fosters nationalism in Uganda amongst the people from Buganda, who were his followers. This nationalism subsequently causes independence through making Britain realise that continually enforcing imperial rule would create opposition and thus require expensive military commitments.
- Cohen also paves way for independence, however, by making political concessions which appease nationalism; one of his first acts was to bring Africans into his executive council.
- In 1953, in a debate in the House of Commons, the colonial secretary Lord Lyttleton declares that Uganda’s future lies as an ‘African nation’ – this was almost a decade before independence was actually granted, showing that decolonisation was a British-led process rather than frantic response to spontaneous nationalist uprisings.
- Independence in 1962.
16
Q
Metropolitan factors - Kenya (repression of Man Mau)
A
- Only 32 whites killed but 11-12 000 Africans killed (official estimates) from 1952-6
- In March 1959, it was publicly revealed that the British had beaten 11 prisoners to death at the Hola detention camp and had attempted to cover it up. The repressive nature of British colonial rule creates international embarrassment and fosters nationalism.
17
Q
Metropolitan factors - Kenya (political concessions)
A
- The 1954 Lyttleton Constitution was designed to allow Africans to gain some ministerial experience (trusteeship principle)
- At the Lancaster House Conference in 1960, containing Africans and some European delegates, Macleod secured their agreement to a constitution which opened the way for an eventual black majority rule
- Iain Macleod accelerated independent across East Africa far more than even Macmillan thought, causing independence as early as 1963
18
Q
Metropolitan factors - Tanganyika
A
- Britain arguably ‘jumped’ rather than being ‘pushed’ because she evaluated the limited economic value of East Africa. For instance, the Tanganyikan Ground Nut scheme launched after WWII cost £49m ultimarely but produced fewer nuts than were imported as seeds, meaning that no profit was made at all. So, the difficulties in making East Africa economically productive cause Britain to drop Tanganyika as a colony because they aren’t gaining from colonial rule their – becomes independent in 1961
19
Q
The international environment - Kenya and Tanganyika
A
Kenya
* Mau Mau had international press coverage, and condemnation from other countries (i.e., the US) as well as the UN pressurised Britain to leave
Tanganyika
* Became a UN trust territory after WWII, supervised by the UN as well as Britain. Nyerere addressed the UN trusteeship council and gained sympathy from them, heightening pressures from the UN to get Britain to concede self-government.
20
Q
Rule in South Africa, wind of change, and response
A
- The Union of South Africa became a self-governing dominion in 1910, and the white majority enjoyed full control over the country’s internal affairs (especially following the 1931 Statute of Westminster)
- Increasingly divisive racial policies became firmly entrenched, with the Afrikaner Nationalist party winning power in 1948 and implementing a policy of apartheid (an Afrikaans word meaning segregation on the ground of race)
- Nelson Mandela led the anti-apartheid movement in South Africa and influenced nationalist movements in other countries in Southern Africa. He envisioned a ‘democratic and free society’ in which everyone had ‘equal opportunities.’
- The ‘Wind of Change’ speech in 1960 was a response specifically to the system of apartheid in South Africa – ‘whether we like it or not, this growth of national consciousness is a political fact’
- In 1961, the Union of South Africa formally became the Republic of South Africa. Condemnation of their system of apartheid meant that South Africa withdrew from the commonwealth altogether.
21
Q
Northern Rhodesia - nationalism
A
- Kenneth Kaunda emerged as the prominent nationalist leader in Northern Rhodesia. He found that other nationalist leaders were becoming increasingly influenced by white liberals, so founded his own party, the Zambian African National Congress (ZANC), in 1958. Whilst ZANC was banned in 1959, this very fact shows how increasingly radical nationalism in Northern Rhodesia forced the British to make difficult choices and resort to repression, which only further heightened anti-Britishness and created international pressure for decolonisation.
- Kaunda was then elected president of UNIP (the successor to ZANC) upon being released from prison in 1960, and then further destabilised British rule through launching a civil disobedience campaign called the Cha-cha-cha campaign, which consisted of arson and blocking major roads, in 1961. This destabilised British rule of the colony, making them realise that they couldn’t keep up the level of commitment needed to keep nationalism under control, so Kaunda’s actions led to the granting of independence in 1964 (with him as Zambia’s first president).
22
Q
Nyasaland - nationalism
A
- Dr Hastings Banda emerged as the key black nationalist leader in Nyasaland. Upon returning to Nyasaland in 1958, he began touring the country and making speeches which criticised the Central African Federation and urging people to join the Nyasaland African Congress.
- Widespread rioting led by the Nyasaland African Congress in January 1959 prompted the British to declare a state of National Emergency, believing that there was a plot to massacre all Europeans. Whilst this plot wasn’t actually true, the frantic response of the British indicates the threatening nature of nationalism in the country.
- Around 1300 people were detained without trial, and 51 were killed by troops or the police.
- The rioting created international embarrassment and hindered the functionality of British rule in the Nyasaland, making Britain realise that it needed to commit a lot more resources and money in order to maintain the territory
- This led to independence in 1964
23
Q
Nationalist weaknesses - Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland
A
Northern Rhodesia
* In Northern Rhodesia, there was tension between the two leading political parties, UNIP (which was the successor to ZANC and more radical) and ANC (which became increasingly lenient towards the British). It took until 1964 for one party to definitively beat the other (as they had previously been ruling in a tense coalition government), so arguably divisions in the nationalist movement actually hindered progress towards independence.
Nyasaland
* A British Commission in 1960 declared that the declaration of a state of emergency in the Nyasaland was dramatic and an overreaction, as there wasn’t actually a plot to massacre all Europeans etc. This shows how nationalism wasn’t actually that threatening.
24
Q
CAF - metropolitan factors
A
- The creation of the Central African Federation by the British arguably caused decolonisation because it ignited nationalism. It was resented by blacks because it united Nyasaland and Northern Rhodesia (which had black-majority populations) with Southern Rhodesia (which had a very strong white settler population). This was perceived as an attempt to extend white influence over the other two regions.
- On the other hand, though, the Central African Federation arguably paved the way for independence through giving blacks more political control and safeguarding their interests, demonstrating an ambition to hand over self-rule to a black nationalist government at some point. For instance, the constitution of the CAF included an African Affairs Board, set up to safeguard the interests of the black population and endued with statutory powers for that powers, especially with regard to discriminatory legislation.
25
Northern Rhodesia - metropolitan factors
* Kenneth Kaunda was imprisoned for two months in 1955, which arguably radicalised him and caused him to found the Zambian African National Congress in 1958 (which was much more anti-British than other nationalist groups at the time). Then the British banned the ZANC in 1959 and sentenced Kaunda to nine months’ imprisonment, which further radicalised his leadership and increased his popularity. He was immediately elected president of UNIP (the successor to ZANC) in 1960 upon his release from prison and ran a civil disobedience campaign the following year. So, Britain’s repression of Kaunda and of the nationalist movement only further increased his popularity and heightened anti-Britishness, enabling Kaunda to become the first president of Zambia in 1964.
26
Nyasaland - metropolitan factors
* Britain’s repressive response to nationalism during the Nyasaland Crisis of 1959 only further increased resentment of British rule, allowing figures like Dr Hastings Banda to gain popularity; around 1300 people were detained without trial, and 51 were killed by troops or the police.
* Led to the granting of independence in 1964, as nationalist movements had gained such a lot of momentum.
27
General evidence that it was metropolitan factors...
‘Wind of change’
* Harold Macmillan’s ‘Wind of Change’ speech in 1960 talks about the ‘basis of a free society’ as including the ‘opportunity to have an increasing share in political power and responsibility’
* You can link this to any colonies gaining independence in the early 1960s, like
Audit of Empire
* After the Suez Crisis in 1956, Macmillan initiated an audit of Empire, in which British officials considered which colonies were ready for independence and whether Britain would gain or lose by their departure.
* Internal pressure groups
* Pressure groups like ‘Movement for Colonial Freedom’ existed in Britain
28
Southern Africa - the international environment
The US
* The US had its own rising black civil rights movement, and the government was becoming more racially progressive, so was largely supportive of black nationalists in Southern Africa and critical of the CAF. Evidence of this link is in the fact that Kenneth Kaunda visisted Martin Luther Kind Jr. in 1960. So, international pressure from the US heled bring about the dissolution of the federation in 1963 and then the granting of independence to Nyasaland (Malawi) and Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) both in 1964.
The UN
* The ‘Declaration of the Granting of Independence to Colonial Peoples’ was issued in 1960 and stressed that decolonisation should be done without unnecessary delay – the UN was a highly regarded international body, so any pressure from them would’ve been significant
29
Events of Suez crisis
* Nasser refuses to sign the Baghdad Pact in 1955, which was an agreement between various countries to repel any Soviet threat to the middle east. Also, when Britain tried to involve Jordan in the pact, he put pressure on Jordan’s young King Hussein to remain out. This increased British suspicions of Nasser leaning towards the soviets.
* Nasser also signs a deal with Czechoslovakia (a soviet satellite state) to get funding for the Aswan Dam, further raising suspicions.
* In July 1956 Nasser announces the nationalisation of the Suez Canal. This was a direct blow to the British government, as they held 44% of shares in the company.
* Due to Nasser’s connection with communist powers, therefore, Britain helps to create the ‘protocol of Sèvres’ which was a plan to stage an Israel invasion of the canal, and then have British and French bring in troops to ‘defend’ it. This plan was intended for late November 1956.
* The coordination between Franco-British and Israeli troops is obvious, causing both the US and UN to condone the attack. The British announce a ceasefire within five days, and Eden is forced to leave Egypt unconditionally.
* So… Britain loses all influence over Egypt (NOT actual occupation though) due to a fear that it would join the Communist bloc, as this concern prompts a rash, badly planned, and immoral invasion of the Suez Canal
30
Consequences of Suez
* Britain had attempted to act in secret and without consulting the USA, and her plan had hugely backfired causing international embarrassment. As a result, Britain had to essentially accept her subordinate status to the USA and recognise that no major action could be taken without American approval or close consultation. This destroyed the idealistic hope that there could be a sudden imperial revival and made Britain more realistic in strategy.
* The fact that Britain had to back down against Nasser’s nationalist government, and that she was condemned by both the US and UN, gave nationalist movements across the empire hope that they could force Britain to surrender if they pushed harder.
* The crisis convinced many British politicians that acceding nationalist demands for independence earlier, and being able to maintain good, friendly relations, was much better than continuing to assert imperial control and ending up with no influence and no influence (especially in areas which were economically important, like Egypt).
31
What was the UDI? And why did it arise?
* In 1965, Ian Smith illegally declares Southern Rhodesia (which he simply calls ‘Rhodesia’) as independent. This is called the Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI).
* The black population in Southern Rhodesia was around 12 x the settler population, so the UDI was considered an outrage.
* The UDI was arguably encouraged by Harold Wilson’s actions, as he had previously made it clear that Britain wasn’t willing to use force against the settlers.
32
What was the response to the UDI?
* Britain, the UN and most of the rest of the world did reject the UDI as illegal and unconstitutional, however British sanctions weren’t effective and thus caused international humiliation and accusations that they weren’t doing enough; Britain failed to successfully cut off oil supplies to Rhodesia because the Mozambique port of Beira was still trading (i.e., the Portuguese empire wasn’t complying with the boycott of goods). Additionally, South Africa refused to cooperate.
* Wilson predicted that the rebellion would end ‘within a matter of weeks’, but it ended up provoking a 15-year long civil war. Britain’s massive underestimation of the severity of the issue, as well as incompetence in dealing with it, therefore, undermined its international prestige. Former colonies, especially, used the Commonwealth as a forum to attack British actions and incompetence.
* The civil war was incredibly long, and independence under black majority rule was only achieved in 1980 as Zimbabwe, making it the last British African colony to gain independence.
33
Consequences of the UDI
* This could maybe be used to point to Britain keeping an interest in the Empire (in terms of criticising policy) – it was probably hard to ignore Empire as a British person when your country was being internationally humiliated – for instance, within hours the UN had passed a condemnatory resolution 107-2 (with only South Africa and Portugal voting against) – shows how it was regarded as completely outrageous, and responsibility was partly placed upon Britain for letting the racial prejudice get this far
