Colonial policy in Asia and Africa 1882-1914 Flashcards
(32 cards)
What was the Ilbert Bill? Was it an example of concession or repression?
o It was a controversial bill introduced by Lord Ripon in 1883 which proposed that non-white judges could oversee cases that had white defendents
o Produced a significant amount of white backlash in the form of demonstrations
o Newspapers such as The Gazette and The Times, criticised Lord Ripon’s desire to “please the native community at any cost” - was an example of concession, but deeply popular and then modified so didn’t actually succeed in appeasing Indians
How was the Ilbert bill modified and what were the consequences?
o As a result of the bill’s controversy, it was re-evaluated and a new compromise was found in 1884: all white defendants would have the right to request that at least half the members of the jury be European
o Consequences: fuelled Indian national conscience, evident in the formation of the Indian National Congress the year after
What was the partition of Bengal? Was it an example of concession or repression? Was it successful in making the Raj more stable?
o Was an attempt by Lord Curzon to divide Bengali nationalism through appeasing Muslims and angering Hindus; Bengal was partitioned into East Bengal with Assam (which formed a Muslim majority of 18million) and into West Bengal (which formed a Hindu Majority)
o On the say of partition, police forcefully cleared off demonstrators who were blockading shops etc, resulting in some Indian deaths
o Prompted the swadeshi movement which was a boycott of British goods, including Lancashire cotton which Britain’s economy was particularly dependent on.
o Protests against the partition also took place in the form of widespread press campaigns, public meetings, and petitions, with several million Indians settled abroad becoming involved in the movement.
o Resistance also took place in the form of terrorism: in 1908, two Europeans were killed by a bomb intended for a local judge, and in 1909, an official at the India Office in London was shot by a Punjabi political activist.
o Catalysed the formation of the All-India Muslim league (1906) to represent Muslim national interests (so maybe heightened nationalism)
o But also caused the Indian National Congress to split (1907), with Tilak and other radical members being deported to Burmese territories, so was arguably successful in moderating nationalism
Why was the partition of Bengal reversed? Was it an example of conciliation or repression?
o Reversed by Lord Hardige in 1911 as a response to Swadeshi pressure and general discontent. The reversion appeased Hindu nationalists but upset muslims who were now deprived of a muslim majority state.
o But the capital was moved from Calcutta to Delhi which angered Hindus - overall, these changes both appeased and annoyed Indians
What were the Morley Minto reforms? How far did they appease Indian nationalism?
o Morley Minto reforms (1909) appeased Indian nationalism through increasing the total elected membership of the councils to 135 (from 39).
o However, the constituencies were very small so not always representative – in some cases they were as few as 20 people. On the Viceroy’s Imperial Legislative Council, appointed Indian representatives still outnumbered elected ones 33:27 – reforms were a façade so only ignited nationalism further
In what other ways did the British anger Indian s through their political policies?
They made the exam to become a civil servant very difficult and hard to access (in London). This was intended to limit Indian political power.
by 1913, they still only made up 5%.
In what ways did Britain not interfere with the existing political structure in India?
35% of the country was still ruled by Indian princes. Similarities to Lugard’s ‘indirect rule’ in Nigeria.
How did British economic policies benefit Indians?
o Curzon increased the railway network by 10,000km
o Curzon also increased the area of irrigated land by 3 million hectares
o From 1909-13, imports form India to Britain averaged in value at £45m (supplier of tea esp.)
o India took around 20% of Britain’s total exports by 1914 - India used as a market
How did Curzon’s cultural policies seem progressive/beneficial?
o Curzon established the Indian Archaeology Survey and worked to preserve architectural treasures, particularly the Taj Mahal
How were British social policies in India repressive?
Curzon instituted an inquiry into the state of Indian higher education but failed to include any Indians on the inquiry committee. The resulting Universities Act (1904) aimed to restrict the huge growth in the number of private colleges, which the Indian middle-class perceived as a direct attack on its interest.
The legal justice system wasn’t completely fair. The Chief Justice of the High Court of a Presidency was British, and there were usually only one or two Indians on the bench of a High Court.
Also, the resistance to and modification of the Ilbert Bill showed that the justice system was inherently racist and designed to let British whites off easily.
Describe British political policy in Egypt?
o Egypt had a partially elected parliament, consisting of an Advisory Council of Laws and a General Assembly, enabling both Egyptians and Britons to have substantial political influence; in 1887, there were more Egyptians working in government positions than Britons, whose numbers didn’t exceed 100.
o BUT the ‘Granville Doctrine’ placed all Egyptian government ministers under the ‘support’ of a British advisor who could immediately dismiss them if they resisted advice – so Egyptian political representation was actually a façade, with the British holding the real executive authority
o Example of concession is Lord Cromer appointing Saad Zaghluls Pasha, a former nationalist, as Minister for Education in 1906
Describe British economic policy in Egypt regarding trade and suez?
o The focus on Egypt was on exploiting resources rather than opening markets: the total value of Egypt’s agricultural production in 1894 was as high as £32 million, whereas the total value of Egypt’s import of foodstuffs was only £5 million even by 1908
o Within 10 years from the establishment of Egypt as a ‘veiled protectorate’, cotton and sugar trebled
o Britain’s exploitation of these resources is evident in the fact that during the years 1909-13, the average value of Egyptian imports to Britain was £13 million (due to cotton especially)
o In the early 1880s, 80% of Suez traffic was British (so control of Egypt had strategic economic incentives)
How did the British improve the Egyptian economy (solving debt and irrigation as part of this)?
o To solve the £70 million debt that Ismail had acquired, Baring made cutbacks to Egypt’s military whilst improving communication and investing in irrigation schemes – economic efficiency
o Lord Cromer and his friends raised £2 million to open the Aswan Dam in 1902, enabling half a million acres of former desert to be irrigated with water from its reservoir, thus enabling year-round cultivation
To what extent did Britain possess absolute control over Egypt’s finances?
o The Caisse de la Dette restricted Britain’s financial power, allowing members to prevent the British Consul-General from spending Egypt’s money on matters they disapproved of. However, the Entente Cordiale in 1904 reduced the powers of the Caisse de la Dette significantly, so that it became a debt-collection agency for foreign bondholders – so Britain gets closer to dominating Egyptian finance without interference from foreign powers
What economic benefits did Sudan receive from British rule?
o Investment in infrastructure: the British extended telegraph and railway lines to link key areas in northern Sudan together
o Improving trade and commerce: Port Sudan, which was formed by the British in 1906, became the country’s principal outlet to the sea.
Details of British social policies in Egypt
o Lord Baring improved the conditions of laborers (eg sanitation)
o The mixed courts contained more Egyptian judges than European ones
o However, Baring was wary of extending educational opportunities (after it backfired in India), evident in that it was not until 1909 that a new university was founded (though still similar to India because Curzon did still try to prevent the educated Indian elite from expanding with the Education Act)
How were British social policies repressive/not beneficial in Sudan?
In Bahr al-Gazal (southern region of Sudan) the Governor-General attempted to exclude Islam and Arabic from the region by creating two separate school systems, one of which would be an Arabic-free school run jointly by the government and the Catholic mission for children of non-Muslims.
Others would be offered a sectarian education in Arabic in a proposed regimental school transferred to Wau from Khartoum, but this transfer was only implemented in 1910, despite being proposed in 1904
How was British foreign/military policy in Egypt repressive?
o In June 1882, 125 Egyptians were killed at the hands of the British during the rebellion against Twefiq and British influence
o Denshawai incident (1906) was a clash between British officers and Egyptain villagers at Denshawai, resulting in the arrest of 52 Egyptians and the public execution of four. George Bernard Shaw described the incident as ‘barbarous’, noting how the family of one man being hung was given ‘plenty time to watch him swinging’. He also dubbed the event ‘The Denshawai Horror’
How was British foreign/military policy in Sudan repressive?
o At the Battle of Omdurman (September 1898) when British and the Khalifah’s Madhist Sudanese forces met, 11,000 of the Khalifah’s troops were killed and 16,000 injured by long-range rifle, machine-gun and artillery – example of repression in order to initially secure rule
o In Sudan, at least 33 punitive expeditions were mounted to force tribesmen to accept the new order of Anglo-Egyptian rule and rebellious natives were often brutally treated.
o Following further ‘Mahdist’ uprisings in 1900, 1902-3, 1904 and 1908, the British publicly hanged several rebels without putting them on trial to set an example.
Describe British political policy in Nigeria
Lugard governed Nigeria by a system of ‘indirect rule’, which he believed was the best road to political independence: “Liberty and self-government” could best be “secured to the native population by leaving them free to manage their own affairs through their own rulers” – so potentially quite liberal in the way of rule
Lugard’s rule of Nigeria met only two serious revolts – was generally accepted as it was relatively easy to establish a system of ‘indirect rule’ by handing over to local Muslim emirs in Northern Nigeria
Although, in the regions east of the River Niger, most societies had no centralised authority, so it was much harder to implement a system of direct rule (the British appointed local chiefs but they were usually unpopular).
How did Nigeria benefit from British economic policy? And what were the drawbacks?
The British benefitted Nigeria economically through giving them access to gin (very arguably though). In 1908, Nigeria took 90% of the total West African gin trade, which was worth £1.2million altogether.
The British improved transport: A railway running from Lagos to Ibadan opened in 1901.
However, many of these public work projects used forced labour: Village heads were paid 10 shillings for providing conscripts for what was branded ‘political labour’, fined £50 if they failed to supply a sufficient number of men.
Was the Ugandan-Kenyan railway economically beneficial or economically exploitative/disastrous?
o The British spent £5m on constructing the Uganda railway or the ‘Lunatic Line’ (built 1896 – 1901), which laid down 660 miles of track to connect the coast with the fertile highlands bordering Lake Victoria.
o This economic progress (which was mainly to benefit the British anyways) was exploitative by nature: 2500 workers died in the construction of the Uganda-Kenyan Railway (Masai warrior attacks, man-eating lions, poor living conditions generally)
o Tsavo incident 1898: between 35 and 100 rail workers were attacked and eaten by two lions - at the expense of natives and Indian migrants who were employed for physical labour
How else was British economic policy in Uganda beneficial?
In Uganda, the British invested £5 million and built 1200 bridges.
How was British economic policy repressive in Kenya?
o The native Kikuyu people of Kenya lost 60,000 acres of fertile farmland to white settlers, causing them to become impoverished. So the white settlers who were there to make Kenya economically profitable (rich, fertile soil) merely displaced Kikuyus.
o There was resistance to high British taxation levels: in 1905, the Nandi people revolted and a military sortie by the British left over 1,000 people dead.
