Confusing Pairs (Vocabulary) Shari Flashcards
Vocabulary (25 cards)
Assimilation vs. Accommodation
Attempting to interpret new information within the framework of existing knowledge (Ex: A child learns about different types of animals. A child might begin with a schema for a dog, which in the child’s mind, is a small, four-legged animal.)
The process of modifying existing cognitive schemas (mental frameworks) to incorporate new information or experience (Ex: When the child encounters a cat, they may try fit that concept into their dog schema. However, as mom or dad may point out, there is a difference between dogs and cat. The child then creates a separate schema for “cat”.)
Proactive interference vs. retroactive interference
When old information or knowledge interferes with the learning of new information (Ex: Struggling to remember a new phone number because your old one keeps popping into your head)
Occurs when the learning of new information interferes with the recall of old information from long-term memory (Ex: Once you have learned a new mobile number, it is often very difficult to recall your old number.)
Top-down processing vs. bottom-up processing
Perceiving things based on your prior experiences and knowledge (Ex: If you see the chair you have stubbed your toe on before and you avoid it to make sure it does not happen again)
When the brain processes sensory information and uses clues to understand stimuli. (Ex: Upon stubbing your pinky toe, the pain receptors in your toe would have immediately recognized the pain sensation and sent these very pain signals to your brain, where they are processed)
Negative punishment vs. negative reinforcement
Taking away a desirable or pleasant stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a specific behavior occurring in the future.
(Ex: taking away a child’s favorite toy after they throw a tantrum)
The idea of taking away an unwanted stimulus in order to encourage good behavior (Ex: in the classroom would be a teacher taking away homework because the class was so well behaved)
Antegrade amnesia vs. retrograde amnesia
a type of memory loss that occurs when you can’t form new memories (Ex: forgetting the events of the day after a brain injury, while retaining memories from before the injury.)
Forgetting the events of the day after a brain injury, while retaining memories from before the injury. (Ex: a person forgetting the events or the days leading up to a serious accident, which caused memory loss.)
Hormones vs. neurotransmitters
Chemicals that coordinate different functions in your body by carrying messages through your blood to your organs, skin, muscles and other tissues (Ex: Surges in hormones like oxytocin and dopamine can drive feelings of happiness, contentment, or excitement,)
Endogenous chemicals that allow neurons to communicate with each other throughout the body. (Ex:glutamate, epinephrine and norepinephrine)
Place theory vs. frequency theory
Place theory is a theory in auditory perception that explains how we perceive different pitches or tones based on the specific location or “place” along the basilar membrane of the inner ear where the sound wave stimulates hair cells. (Ex: crashing cymbals and chirping birds)
The frequency theory explains that a sound heard is replicated and matched by the same amount of nerve impulses that are then transmitted to the brain. (Ex: the brain perceives pitch based on the rate of nerve impulses transmitted to the auditory nerve, with a 100 Hz tone, for example, being signaled by 100 impulses per second. )
Opponent process theory vs. trichromatic theory
The mind can only register the presence of one color of a pair at a time because the two colors oppose one another. (Ex: we do see yellowish-greens and reddish-yellows, but we never see reddish-green or yellowish-blue color hues)
A theory of color vision that suggests the human eye has three types of cones, each sensitive to different wavelengths of light (Ex: red, green, and blue)
Classical conditioning vs. operant conditioning
Discovered by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, classical conditioning is a type of unconscious or automatic learning. This learning process creates a conditioned response through associations between an unconditioned stimulus and a neutral stimulus. (Ex: Pavlov’s classic experiment with dogs.)
An association is made between a behavior and a consequence (whether negative or positive) for that behavior. (Ex: when lab rats press a lever when a green light is on, they receive a food pellet as a reward.)
Fluid intelligence vs. crystalized intelligence
Involves the ability to reason and think flexibly (Ex: adapting to new technology, solving puzzles, or finding creative solutions to unexpected challenges.)
Crystallized intelligence refers to the accumulation of knowledge, facts, and skills acquired throughout life. (Ex: Remembering historical dates, knowing the capital of a country, or reciting a poem.)
Deindividuation vs. social loafing
A phenomenon in which individuals in a group setting believe they cannot be identified under the cover of the crowd, which reduces accountability and results in non-normative behavior (Ex: cheering at a sporting event, engaging in vandalism at a riot, or behaving aggressively online)
The tendency for individuals to expend less effort when working collectively than when working individually (Ex: Slacking in a team)
Projection vs. displacement
The mental process by which people attribute to others what is in their own minds. (Ex: Individuals who are in a self-critical state, consciously or unconsciously, may think that other people are critical of them.)
A defense mechanism in which a person redirects an emotional reaction from the rightful recipient onto another person or object (Ex: if a manager screams at an employee, the employee doesn’t scream back—but he may yell at his spouse later that night)
Self-esteem vs. self-efficacy
An individual’s overall sense of self-worth or personal value, encompassing both their beliefs about themselves and their emotional evaluation of their own worth (Ex: “I am loved”, “I am worthy”)
An individual’s belief in their capacity to execute the behaviors necessary to achieve specific outcomes, encompassing confidence in one’s ability to control their own motivation, behavior, and social environment. (Ex: student feeling confident they can pass a difficult exam or an athlete believing they can win a race.)
Central route to persuasion vs. peripheral route to persuasion
A method of convincing others to take an action or make a decision based on facts and evidence of the merits of the outcome (Ex: Someone is persuaded to buy a weight loss pill when they are presented with scientific evidence of its effectiveness)
Persuasion which does not rely on the intrinsic merits of an argument. It is concerned with cues around trustworthiness, emotions, and group identity rather than facts and logic. (Ex: having a popular athlete advertise athletic shoes is a common method used to encourage young adults to purchase the shoes)
Foot-in-the-door vs. door-in-the-door
Involves starting with a small request, which, if agreed to, increases the likelihood of compliance with a later, larger request (Ex: when a friend asks to borrow a small amount of money, then later asks to borrow a larger amount.)
Where a large, unreasonable request is initially made, followed by a smaller, more reasonable request, making the second request seem more appealing and likely to be accepted. (Ex: when a friend asks to borrow an unreasonable sum of money, to which you say no, only to turn around and ask for a smaller sum that you agree to give)
Availability heuristic vs. representativeness heuristic
A mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to a given person’s mind when evaluating a specific topic, concept, method, or decision. (Ex: when shopping for laundry detergents, you may choose Tide over other brands because it comes to mind first and faster than any other brand)
A cognitive bias where people judge the likelihood of an event or object belonging to a category based on how similar it is to their mental prototype or stereotype of that category, often ignoring statistical information (Ex: thinking that because someone is wearing a suit and tie and carrying a briefcase, that they must be a lawyer, because they look like the stereotype of a lawyer)
Divergent vs. convergent thinking
The process of creating multiple, unique ideas or solutions to a problem that you are trying to solve. (Ex: Wondering how many ways you can use a fork)
Focuses on reaching one well-defined solution to a problem (Ex: answering multiple-choice tests or solving a problem where you know there are no other possible solutions)
Endorphins vs. substances P
Natural, peptide neurotransmitters and hormones produced by the body that act as natural pain relievers and promote feelings of well-being and pleasure (Ex: Exercise)
A tachykinin neuropeptide involved in pain transmission, inflammation, and other physiological processes, acting as a neurotransmitter and neuromodulator in the central and peripheral nervous systems (Ex: SP is involved in transmitting pain impulses and sensitizing sensory neurons. )
Groupthink vs. group polarization
where a group prioritizes consensus and conformity over critical thinking and the exploration of alternative perspectives, potentially leading to flawed decision-making. (Ex: leader of a group telling everyone that they need to ban all members of a particular ethnic group from joining them, and the members of this group accepting that decision without questioning it)
A psychological phenomenon where a group’s beliefs, attitudes, and decisions tend to become more extreme or amplified than those held by individual group members after group discussion (Ex: A group of people who are already mildly critical of a politician, after discussing their views, might become much more vehemently opposed to that politician. )
Hallucinations vs. delusions
Sensory experience that a person perceives as real, but which is not actually caused by external stimuli, meaning they are seeing, hearing, feeling, smelling, or tasting something that isn’t there (Ex: Seeing objects, people, or animals that are not present)
False ideas or beliefs that someone holds onto, even when there is evidence that they are not real (Ex: Believing that they have special powers or abilities)
Morphemes vs. phonemes
The smallest units of speech that convey meaning (Ex: For example, the word “work” is a single morpheme, but the word “working”, which implies some action, is made up of two morphemes (“work” and “ing”).)
The smallest unit of sound in a language that can distinguish meaning between words, serving as the fundamental building block of spoken language. (Ex: In English, the sounds /p/ and /b/ are phonemes because they distinguish between “pan” and “ban”.)
Approach-approach vs. approach-avoidance conflict
An intrapersonal conflict when a decision is to be made from two appealing choices (Ex :deciding between two equally desirable vacation destinations.)
Arises when a person faces a goal or situation that has both positive and negative aspects, leading to conflicting motivations to either approach or avoid it (Ex: deciding to accept a dream job that pays less, or taking a long vacation while falling behind at work)
Object permanence vs. conservation
The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight or no longer directly perceived, a crucial milestone in infant cognitive development. (Ex: a baby playing peek-a-boo and understanding their parent will reappear, not just disappear)
Conservation refers to a logical thinking ability that allows a person to determine that a certain quantity will remain the same despite adjustment. (Ex: when presented with two identical cups of water filled with the same amount, the child would explain that they are the same.)
Variable schedules vs. ratio schedule
Variable schedule reinforces behavior after a randomly varying number of responses or time intervals (Ex: Variable Interval (VI): Reinforcement occurs after a varying amount of time, averaging around a specific time interval (e.g., a reward after an average of 5 minutes, but the actual time can vary).
Variable Ratio (VR): as defined above, reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses, averaging around a specific number.)
A ratio schedule reinforces behavior after a certain number of responses (Ex:Fixed Ratio (FR): Reinforcement occurs after a specific, consistent number of responses (e.g., a reward for every 5th response).
Variable Ratio (VR): Reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses, averaging around a specific number (e.g., a reward after an average of 5 responses, but the actual number of responses can vary).)
