Control and regulation Flashcards
(129 cards)
1
Q
Stimulus
A
A detectable change in the internal and external environment that causes a response
2
Q
Response
A
Reaction of the body to a stimulus
3
Q
Receptor
A
Specialised cell or part of cell that detects a stimulus and sends signals to the brain for interpretation
4
Q
Ear receptors?
A
The ear receptors are the hair cells located in cochlea that detects vibrations from sound waves
5
Q
How does skin detect stimulus?
A
Cutaneous receptors detect changes in pressure, temp or pain and send electrical signals to the brain through sensory neuron
6
Q
Neurons
A
Specialised cells in the nervous system that transmit electrical and chemical signals.
7
Q
What do neuron’s allow the body to detect?
A
They allow the body to detect stimuli
8
Q
Cell body (soma) structure
A
Holds the nucleus and mitochondria and other important organelles
9
Q
Dendrites structure
A
Branch like extensions from the cell body
10
Q
Axon structure
A
A long, tube-like structure extending from the cell body.
11
Q
Myelin sheath structure
A
A fatty layer that wraps around the axon
12
Q
Synapse structure
A
Small gap seperating neurons
13
Q
Neurotransmitters structure and purpose
A
Chemical messengers released at the synapse.
14
Q
Sensory neurons
A
Carry signals from sensory receptors to the CNS
15
Q
Interneurons
A
Connect sensory and motor neurons within the CNS
16
Q
Motor neurons
A
Carry instructions from the CNS to muscles and glands (effectors)
17
Q
How do neurons work together?
A
When a stimulus is detected, sensory neuron send signals to the CNS. Interneurons process the info and the motor neurons send signals to the effectors
18
Q
Reflexes
A
Automatic, fast, involuntary response to specific stimuli. (don’t think about it)
19
Q
Pathway of receptors in order
A
Stimuli, receptor, sensory neuron, interneuron, motor neuron, effector
20
Q
What does the interneuron do in the pathway of reflexes?
A
Processes the message in the spinal cord
21
Q
What does the sensory neuron do in the pathway of reflexes?
A
Sends the message to the spinal cord
22
Q
What does the motor neuron do in the pathway of reflexes?
A
Sends the command to the effector
23
Q
Is blinking a reflex
A
yes
23
Q
Is pulling hand away from hot surface a reflex
A
yes
24
Is sleeping a reflex
no
25
What is the function of the eye
It detects light to allow us to see, and it converts light stimuli into electrical signals that a re interpreted by the brain
26
What sensory organ sends chemical signals
The nose and mouth only
27
Immune system purpose?
defends the body against pathogens, using multiple layers of defence
28
First line of defence name
Non-specific physical and chemical defences
29
First line of defence purpose
Prevents pathogens from entering the body (eg. skin acting as a barrier)
30
Second line of defence name
Innate immunity (non-specific)
31
Second line of defence purpose
Where white blood cells (phagocytes) seek out and destroy pathogens, using process called 'seek and destroy'
32
Third line of defence name
Adaptive immunity (specific)
33
Third line of defence purpose
Where white blood cells (lymphocytes) produce specific antibodies to the pathogen
34
Third line of defence stages
Humoral the cell mediated immunity
35
Humoral immunity purpose
B cells produce molecules called antibodies that fit exactly to the pathogen (eg. key and lock)
36
Cell mediated immunity purpose
T cells recognise pathogens and attack them
37
Do B cells and T cells keep so memory cell
Yes
38
Vaccine can be..
A dead pathogen, a living weakened form of a pathogen or broken parts of pathogen
39
Allergies happen
When your immune system makes a harmless substance for a pathogen
40
Intolerances
Is when the body has difficulty digesting a substance because of the lack of enzymes that can help it break down
41
Are intolerances immune related
no
42
Homeostasis
Homeostasis is the process by which the body maintains a stable internal environment despite changes in the external environment. It ensures conditions (example) remain normal
43
Negative feedback
Negative feedback is a control mechanism that helps the body reverse a change and return to normal
44
When something becomes too high or low what helps return back to normal?
Negative feedback
45
If your glucose level increases what does your body do to let it return back to normal?
The pancreas receptors respond and release insulin and the liver changes glucose to glycogen to let our body glucose level return to normal
46
If your glucose level decreases what does your body do to let it return back to normal?
The pancreas receptors respond and release glucose and the liver releases its glycogen store as glucose
47
Main organs that is responsible for helping our body glucose level return back to normal
Pancreas and liver
48
If we drink too much water what does our body too let our water content in the body normal?
So our water content in blood will be high so our brain will produce less ADH then the urine output will be high and concentrated
49
If we drink too little water what does our body do to let our water content in the body normal?
So our water content in blood will be low so our brain will produce more ADH then the urine output will be low
50
ADH stand for and meaning
antidiuretic hormone that regulates water balance in the body by controlling how much water the kidneys reabsorb
51
During exercise how does our body regulate so we intake the same amount of oxygen we need
Cellular respiration will increase when doing exercise so our CO2 production increases then out body detects high CO2 in blood so impulses are sent for our breathing rate to increase so more CO2 will be exhaled and then it goes back to normal
52
Nervous system
Controls and coordinates body functions and enables communication between different body parts.
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Nervous system parts
CNS as central nervous system and PNS as peripheral nervous system
54
CNS
includes the brain and spinal cord, and control center of the body processing info and sends out introductions and is the body's processing centre
55
PNS
Consists of all nerves outside the CNS. It connects the CNS to limbs and organs and acts as a communication network
56
SNS (somatic nerve system)
Controls voluntary movements of skeletal muscles
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ANS (autonomic nerve system)
Controls involuntary body functions like heartbeat and breathing
58
Sympathetic Nervous System
Prepares the body 'fight or flight' in stressful situations
59
Parasympathetic Nervous System
Calms the body down after stress, promoting 'rest and digest' activities
60
Divisions of the PNS
ANS and SNS
61
Frontal lobe
Responsible for thinking, planning, problem-solving and voluntary movement
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Parietal lobe
Processes sensory info such as touch, temp and pain
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Temporal lobe
Involved in hearing, memory and language
64
Occipital lobe
Processes visual info from the eyes
65
Pathogen examples (main)
Bacteria, fungi, parasites and viruses
66
Viruses
Non living particles that invade cells hijacking the host cells (covid 19)
67
Bacteria
Single celled organisms that can cause infections like food poisoning (eg. e.coli)
68
Fungi
Can cause skin infections (eg. athletes foot)
69
Parasites
Live on or in a host and cause harm (eg. tapeworms)
70
Infectious diseases
Caused by pathogens and can spread (eg. chicken pox)
71
Non-infectious diseases
Not cause by pathogens and cannot spread (eg. diabetes)
72
Bacteria treatment
Antibiotics (eg. penicillin)
73
Viruses treatment
Cannot be treated with antibiotics: vaccines can prevent many viral diseases
74
Fungi treatment
Antifungal medications
75
Parasites treatment
Antiparasitic drugs prevention includes hygiene and avoiding contaminated food/water
76
The endocrine system
Made up of glands that release hormones directly into the bloodstream
77
Hormones
Chemical messengers that regulate body processes such as growth, metabolism and production (not electrical)
78
Difference between nervous and endocrine system?
Nervous system uses electrical and chemical signals and are fast acting and effects are short term while endocrines system uses only chemical signals and have a slower response with long term effects
79
Pituitary gland (major endocrine gland)
Produces growth home (GH)
80
Thyroid Gland (major endocrine gland)
Produces thyroxine (regulates metabolism)
81
Pancreas (major endocrine gland)
Produces insulin and glucagon (regulates blood sugar)
82
Adrenal Glands (major endocrine gland)
Produce adrenaline (increases heart rate and energy in emergencies)
83
Ovaries (in females) (major endocrine gland)
Produce oestrogen and progesterone
84
Testes (in males) (major endocrine gland)
Produce testosterone
85
Peptide hormones
Made of protiens, target receptors on the outside of cells, usually have a specific action on a small number of cells (eg. antidiuretic hormone)
86
Steroid hormones
Made from cholesterol target receptors on the inside of cell, usually have a general affect on most types of cell (eg. growth and sex hormones)
87
Hormone receptors
Have its own unique shape, target cells have special receptors for certain hormones, once the hormone binds to the receptor on its target cell, it forces the cell to behave a certain way
88
Cell body function
Maintains the neuron’s metabolism, processes incoming signals, and integrates information.
89
Dendrites function
Receive info from contact with axons from other neurons
90
Axon function
Take info away from the cell body
91
Myelin sheath function
Protects axon from disruptions and helps speed up the nerve impulses
92
Synapse function
Allows communication between neurons through the release of neurotransmitters.
93
Difference between axon and dendrites
Axons take info away from the cell body while dendrites receive info from contact with axons from other neurons
94
People with multiple sclerosis have...
Damaged myelin sheath
95
Are sensory neurons afferent or efferent
Afferent
96
Are motor neurons afferent or efferent
Efferent
97
Difference between afferent and efferent neurons
Afferent neurons transmit signals toward the CNS while efferent neurons transmit signals away from the CNS to effectors
98
Axon terminal
Releases neurotransmitters to pass a nerve signal on to the next neuron
99
What do all the three neurons form
They fit together to form a neural pathway
100
Where are neurons the most concentrated in
In the brain and spinal cord
101
Difference between sensory and motor neurons
Sensory neurons send info from inside and outside the body to the brain and spinal cord while motor neurons take info from the brain or spinal cord to the muscles
102
What are all the structures and lobes of the brain
Frontal lobe, Parietal lobe, Temporal lobe, Occipital lobe, Brain stem, Cerebellum
103
Difference between CNS and PNS
The CNS processes information, while the PNS transmits signals.
104
What is the process of reflexes (3 steps)
Receptors detect a stimulus and then send it to the control centre in the spinal cord, then the control centre initiate a message which is sent to the effectors, then the effectors deliver a response
105
What happens during a reflex
Sensory neuron carries the message from the receptor to the spinal cord then the interneuron send 2 message at the same time one to the brain and one to the motor neuron
106
Compare reflexes and reaction time
Reflexes cannot be trained and are automatic and made by the spinal cord however the reaction time can be trained and is made by the brain
107
Example of somatic nervous system movements
waving, reaching out to take something
108
Example of autonomic nervous system movements
heartbeat, digetsion, sweating
109
What does the autonomic nervous system maintains
body's internal environment (homeostasis)
110
What acid does the stomach produce
Hydrochloric acid
111
What is the process of the neutralisation of stomach acid.
Acidic chyme moves from stomach to small intestine, S-cells in duodenum detect lowering of PH and release secretin into blood, it goes through the bloodstream and when it reaches the pancreas the pancreas releases alkaline juice which is a basic so it neutralises the acidity.
when the ph rises, it stops the release of secretion.
112
Who made germ theory
Kosh made germ theory
113
What is germ theory
For something to be classified as a disease it has to;
1. have microorganisms or pathogens present in it
2. the pathogens can be isolated from a diseased host and grown in a lab
3. in has to be able to be inoculated into a healthy susceptible lab animal
4. when re- isolated from the new host it must be the same as the originally inoculated pathogen.
114
When and who discovered penicillin
1928 by Alexander Fleming
115
How does penicillin work
By breaking down cells walls of bacteria but it doesn't work on viruses because they have a protien cast
116
What is target cells
Specially shaped cell that is fitted to a specific hormone, so when the hormone comes it activates it
117
Where are target cells found
In the bloodstream
118
When and where are adrenaline released
It is released during stressful situations by the adrenal glands (also cortisol)
119
What happens when adrenaline is released
Speeds up the heart rate, increases strength and speed, increases blood pressure, and prepares your body to freeze, flight, or fight
120
Progesterone
Prepares lining of uterus, stays high during pregnancy
121
difference between disease and infections
An infection occurs when pathogens enter the body and multiply, while a disease occurs when an infection causes symptoms and disrupts normal body functions.
122
difference between reflex and reaction time
A reflex is an involuntary, automatic response that bypasses the brain, while reaction time is a voluntary response requiring brain processing.
123
difference between coristol and secretin structurally
Structurally, cortisol is a steroid hormone with a four-ring structure, while secretin is a peptide hormone made of amino acids.
124
how does a fever disrupt your body at a cellular level
Fever disrupts the body at a cellular level by increasing the activity of certain immune cells
125
Define homeostasis and negative feedback, including examples
Homeostasis is the body's ability to maintain a stable internal environment even with external environment changes, using negative feedback which is when reverses the effect of the original stimulus, such as insulin release to lower blood sugar or sweating to cool down.
126
How the body prevents the body from getting too high blood sugar from chocolate cake
After eating chocolate cake, the pancreas releases insulin, which signals cells to absorb glucose from the blood. The liver that stores excess glucose as glycogen to prevent blood sugar from rising too high. This process is controlled by negative feedback, ensuring blood sugar levels return to normal.
127
Describe how homeostasis maintains blood sugars, water regulation and O2 and CO2 levels
Homeostasis maintains blood sugar via insulin and glucagon, water levels through ADH, and oxygen/CO₂ levels via breathing rate adjustments.
128
Define homeostasis and a brief explanation on how it gets to that state .etc.
Homeostasis is achieved through negative feedback loops, where sensors detect stimuli, signals are sent to effectors, and adjustments are made to restore balance.
