Control of the People (1917-85)

Question 1

What characterised Soviet mass media from 1917 to 1985?

Answer 1

Soviet mass media was state-controlled through nationalisation, censorship, and restriction of information

The media served as an instrument for propaganda and social control, though methods evolved with advancing technology

Question 2

How did Lenin control the press after the October Revolution?

Answer 2

Lenin moved quickly to stamp out freedom of the press by issuing a decree in November 1917 that banned all non-socialist newspapers

By the early 1920s, all non-Bolshevik papers were eliminated

The printing press was nationalised, restricting access to those working in the interests of the workers and the Socialist order

All editors and journalists were government employees, members of the Union of Soviet Journalists, and expected to be Party members

Every article needed approval from Glavlit, the censorship office

Question 3

What role did Soviet newspapers play in mass media?

Answer 3

Major newspapers like Pravda (Communist Party) and Izvestiya (government) were used as propaganda tools to highlight the achievements of socialism

Pravda had a circulation of 10.7 million in 1983, and the government-controlled Trud (Labour) had 13.5 million

These newspapers were cheap and widely available, with copies often posted on public boards for people to read for free

The guiding principle for the press was partinost (Party-mindedness), meaning all content aligned with government ideals

Question 4

How did the Soviet government ensure mass media reached the public?

Answer 4

Newspapers were cheap and accessible, allowing for wide distribution

Local newspapers sometimes published criticisms of minor bureaucrats, but criticising Party leaders was strictly prohibited

Magazines catered to specific groups, with topics like sex, crime, and religion off-limits

Sovetski Sport, a sports magazine, was hugely popular and respected for its accurate sports coverage, despite the need to praise the government on the front page

Question 5

What kind of topics were favoured or censored in Soviet newspapers?

Answer 5

Newspapers typically focused on economic achievements, especially those related to the Five-Year Plans, and technological triumphs like Arctic expeditions and aviators flying over the North Pole

Prohibited topics included plane crashes, natural disasters, and any negative reports on disasters like the Kyshtym disaster in 1957 (a nuclear waste explosion that killed 200+ people and exposed 270,000 to dangerous radiation)

A 1972 fire outside Moscow went unreported for a month until it was under control

Question 6

How did Soviet magazines and radio contribute to propaganda?

Answer 6

Magazines like Sovetski Sport provided a mix of sports coverage with government praise

Radio became a vital medium, reaching the 65% of the population who were illiterate

By the 1920s, radio stations were centralised under the government, with broadcasts conveying official messages and often accompanied by classical music

Loudspeakers in public spaces ensured the Soviet message was broadcast to large groups, especially in factories and public areas

Question 7

What was the role of radio in Soviet society?

Answer 7

The first radio broadcasts occurred in 1917, with mass-produced radios ensuring wide access to state-controlled information

By 1941, Stalin’s live radio speech during the German invasion proved to be an effective means of reassuring the Soviet population

Radio Mayak (established in 1964) played some foreign music and became popular with youth

Radio was often the only means of mass communication, especially in rural areas

Question 8

How did television evolve in the USSR?

Answer 8

By 1958, there were nearly 3 million televisions in the USSR

By the early 1980s, most of the rural population had access to TV

Soviet TV focused on propaganda documentaries, ballet, classical arts, and children’s programming

By 1985, there were two national channels, and the output had shifted to light entertainment, including pop culture, but largely uncontroversial content

The government-controlled media aimed to portray life in the USSR as joyous, while presenting capitalist countries as riddled with violence, crime, and homelessness

Question 9

How did censorship affect TV and other media?

Answer 9

The government strictly censored content, ensuring only positive portrayals of socialism

Topics such as sex, crime, and religion were off-limits in TV programming

The media aimed to present a unified message of government success, with Party figures receiving favorable coverage

In 1963, Soviet citizens received a new encyclopedia, with an insert replacing pages about Beria, reflecting his arrest and removal from public life

Question 10

What measures did the government take to control foreign media?

Answer 10

The government sought to restrict access to foreign stations by jamming radio broadcasts and threatening imprisonment for those who tuned into stations like Voice of America or BBC

In public places, loudspeakers were used to ensure that only government messages were received

The mass production of cheap radios also helped limit reception to state-controlled stations only

Question 11

What were some of the notable incidents in Soviet media control?

Answer 11

The Kyshtym disaster (1957) was completely ignored by the Soviet press, and citizens only became aware of it due to discrepancies in maps

The 1972 Moscow fire was not reported until one month later

In 1963, the government sent out a revised encyclopedia instructing citizens to replace pages on Beria with new inserts about the Bering Sea

Question 12

How did the rise of new technologies challenge Soviet censorship?

Answer 12

As technology advanced, the government attempted to control the spread of information through video recorders and computers, though these technologies made it easier for information sharing

By the 1960s, video recorders and computers provided new opportunities for the public to access uncensored information, posing a challenge to government control

The state mass-produced video recorders to ensure control, but rising technologies like computers posed a growing challenge to maintaining control over the population’s access to information

Question 13

What was a cult of personality and why was it used in the USSR?

Answer 13

A cult of personality highlighted the qualities and achievements of individual Soviet leaders, often to exaggerated or absurd levels, despite socialism’s emphasis on collective leadership

It was used to reinforce the personal power of leaders and elevate them above colleagues in the Politburo

Leaders used it as a tool to enhance legitimacy, separate themselves from collective rule, and portray themselves as heirs to Lenin

Even Lenin was turned into a cult figure after death — his embalming, the renaming of Petrograd to Leningrad (1924), and long queues to see his body showed early use of this strategy

The cult of Lenin was maintained by all later leaders to legitimise their authority and portray continuity with the Revolution

Question 14

How did Stalin develop his cult of personality in the 1920s and 1930s?

Answer 14

In the first phase, Stalin emphasized non-existent links with Lenin, presenting himself as Lenin’s closest comrade, hero of the Civil War, and saviour of the Revolution

Trotsky was removed from photos and official records

The slogan “Stalin is the Lenin of today” became widespread after Lenin’s death in 1924

Tsaritsyn was renamed Stalingrad in 1925 to reinforce this image

Question 15

What were the main features of Stalin’s personality cult in the 1930s and 1940s?

Answer 15

Stalin was portrayed as an all-knowing, all-present leader, through portraits and paintings with soft focus to make him look glamorous

He was shown as a benefactor, inspiration, and defender of socialism

One famous image showed Stalin at the Ryon hydroelectric complex (1935), linking him to Five-Year Plan successes

Stalin and children images were common — children giving him flowers and looking up to him like a father figure

During WWII, propaganda showed him in military uniform, surrounded by Soviet troops and weapons, presenting him as defender of Mother Russia

Posters portrayed Stalin with workers and peasants, though after 1930 he rarely met ordinary citizens

He was always depicted as plain-dressed, pipe-smoking, and modest, enhancing his “man of the people” image

The volume of images, through paintings, statues, and photographs, was designed to intimidate and overwhelm

Question 16

How did Stalin’s biography and history get manipulated?

Answer 16

Stalin’s early life was embellished or invented — his house in Georgia became a shrine, and a happy family was fabricated despite him only seeing his mother three times in 40 years and calling her “the old whore”

The 1938 official history book, Short Course (History of the All-Union Communist Party), credited Stalin with saving the Revolution and leading all key policies since Lenin

In 1947, G.F. Alexandrov published an official biography of Stalin, further praising his greatness

Stalin gained absurd titles like “Brilliant Genius of Humanity” and “Gardener of Human Happiness”

Question 17

How was culture used to support Stalin’s cult?

Answer 17

Poets wrote in praise of Stalin, e.g., M. Izakovsky’s “Song About Stalin”

Speeches were recorded and sent to remote parts of the USSR

Statues were erected across most cities and towns; despite being only 5’6” (1.6m) tall, statues made him look taller than Tsar Alexander III

Films depicted Stalin as heroic:

Mikhail Gelovani frequently played him

In The Fall of Berlin (1950), Stalin flies in to liberate the city — despite rarely flying and not visiting Berlin during the war

Question 18

What were the results of Stalin’s cult of personality by the 1950s?

Answer 18

By the late 1940s, the image of Stalin had become so idealised that officials didn’t recognise him in real life

By the early 1950s, the cult reached absurd levels — many towns were renamed after him, and the Volga-Don Canal, though rarely used, had numerous Stalin statues along its banks

While orchestrated, the cult was not entirely artificial — after WWII, Stalin’s popularity grew, and many saw him as the saviour of socialism and the nation

Even Gulag prisoners cried upon learning of his death in 1953

Question 19

How did Khrushchev respond to and later use a cult of personality?

Answer 19

In his Secret Speech (1956), Khrushchev condemned Stalin’s cult, accusing him of betraying the Revolution and turning a proletarian dictatorship into a personal dictatorship

However, by the time of Khrushchev’s dismissal in 1964, he too was accused of having created his own cult of personality

Khrushchev used his cult to promote his reformist image and connect himself to Lenin, even as he distanced himself from Stalin

Question 20

Did Brezhnev also have a cult of personality?

Answer 20

Yes — although Brezhnev had less personal power than Stalin or Khrushchev, he still cultivated a cult of personality

It gave him the appearance and trappings of power, reinforcing his status within the Party and Soviet society

Like Stalin and Khrushchev, he used propaganda and imagery to project authority and legitimacy

He was often portrayed as a steady, stabilising figure, receiving numerous titles and medals

His image was heavily promoted through state media, public celebrations, and repetitive praise, contributing to a stagnant but controlled image of leadership

Question 21

How did the Bolsheviks attack religious beliefs and practices, particularly those of the Russian Orthodox Church?

Answer 21

The Bolsheviks saw religion, especially the Russian Orthodox Church, as a threat to socialist ideology, since Christianity emphasised individual rights, which conflicted with the collective mentality of socialism.

Lenin had a particular hatred for priests, and the Church was seen as a rival instrument of social control, due to its traditional association with the Tsarist regime—the Tsar had been its head and its priests held considerable sway over the population.

The 1918 Decree on Freedom of Conscience separated the Church from the state:
* The Church lost its privileged status
* It was deprived of its land without compensation
* Religious education outside the home was banned
* Church publications were outlawed

A wide campaign was launched:
* Monasteries were closed, churches were destroyed or repurposed
* By end of 1918, Patriarch Tikhon was under house arrest
* During the civil war, Church valuables were seized to fund food supplies
* Priests were deprived of the vote, denied rations, and suffered under the Red Terror of 1921–22
* By 1923, 28 bishops and over 1,000 priests had been killed

In 1929, the regime launched the League of the Militant Godless as part of a propaganda campaign:
* Organised plane rides for peasants to “prove” there was no heaven in the sky
* Ridiculed religious icons, showing weeping icons operated by rubber squeezers
* Promoted “Octoberings” as replacements for baptisms
* Encouraged new names like Revolyutsiya and Ninel (Lenin spelled backwards)

The scale of attacks led to a change in tone:
* After Patriarch Tikhon’s death in 1925, Metropolitan Sergei of Moscow called on Church members to support the regime
* Most refused, but the softer approach led to fewer direct attacks on the Church

By 1930, four-fifths of all village churches were closed or destroyed

Despite this, the regime failed to eliminate religious influence entirely:
* Mid-1920s surveys showed 55% of peasants were still active Christians

Question 22

How did religious policy change under Stalin, Khrushchev, Brezhnev, and in relation to Islam in the USSR?

Answer 22

Under Stalin, a harsh campaign of religious repression accompanied collectivisation:
* Many more churches were closed
* Village priests were labelled as ‘kulaks’ and deported
* During the Great Purge (1936–39), religious persecution intensified—by 1939, only 12 out of 163 bishops were still at liberty

A shift occurred during the German invasion in 1941, as the Church supported the war effort:
* Stalin responded with a more liberal approach
* The patriarchate was re-established, some churches reopened, and new seminaries were created to train priests
* There was recognition that religion could help sustain morale during wartime hardship

Khrushchev, who was fervently anti-religious, launched another wave of repression in 1958–59 that lasted until 1964:
* The role of priests was reduced to spiritual advice only
* Parish councils were controlled by Party officials, who often dismissed priests as unnecessary
* Within four years, 10,000 churches were closed
* Surviving priests were harassed by the secret police
* Baptists and Jews faced severe restrictions on their right to congregate and worship

Under Brezhnev (after 1964), active persecution declined:
* He recognised that stories of religious persecution harmed the USSR’s foreign relations
* The Council of Religious Affairs was used to monitor services, and clergy were classified by their loyalty to socialism
* The Orthodox Church was permitted to conduct services and support Soviet social policy, e.g., by helping the poor

However, dissent remained:
* In 1976, a group of Orthodox priests formed the Christian Committee for the Defence of Believers’ Rights to protest human rights abuses
* Its leader, Father Yakunin, was jailed for five years in 1979 for anti-Soviet propaganda

Religious groups more critical of the regime, like Jews and Baptists, faced tighter restrictions:
* Evangelical preaching was limited
* Prayer meetings were broken up, and members lost their jobs
* Nonetheless, unregistered congregations continued to meet and distribute prayer books

Regarding Islam, the Central Asian Muslim population posed unique challenges:
* Islam was deeply embedded in daily life and local culture, making it harder to suppress
* Early on, the Bolsheviks avoided confronting Islamic practices, but by the mid-1920s, a campaign began:

Religious land endowments were banned, making mosque maintenance difficult

Most mosques were shut down

Sharia courts were phased out

Mullahs were removed and often forced to publicly confess to being “deceivers of the people”

The veiling of women was targeted on International Women’s Day (1927), with mass bonfire ceremonies

Ramadan fasting was condemned for harming work discipline

Polygamy was banned as oppressive to women

These actions led to violent revolts in 1928–29, especially among the Chechens of southern Russia, which were crushed by Soviet armed forces

Many Muslims responded by publicly conforming to the state while privately maintaining traditions, or by joining underground brotherhoods called tariqat

Question 23

How did the Bolsheviks use the secret police to attack opponents of the government under Lenin?

Answer 23

Lenin established the Cheka in 1917, led by Felix Dzerzhinsky, to target counter-revolutionaries and saboteurs

The Cheka was granted broad powers during the Civil War, allowing it to act with minimal interference from legal bodies

After the attempted assassination of Lenin by Fanya Kaplin in August 1918, the Cheka launched a wave of arrests

During the Red Terror (1921–22), the Cheka targeted Socialist Revolutionaries and Mensheviks

Up to 200,000 opponents were executed during the Red Terror—execution became the norm

Question 24

How did the role of the secret police evolve after the Civil War?

Answer 24

In 1922, the Cheka was replaced by the GPU, which became the OGPU in 1923

The secret police became increasingly independent from other state institutions

It now took orders only from Communist Party leadership, not from the courts or other bodies

In 1934, the OGPU was merged with the Interior Ministry to form the NKVD, increasing its power further

Question 25

How did Stalin use the secret police to eliminate political opponents during industrialisation and the purges?

Answer 25

Stalin’s Five-Year Plans and collectivisation led to opponents—especially kulaks—being deported to the Gulag After the show trial of Zinoviev and Kamenev (1936), the number of arrests increased Members of the Right of the Party, such as Bukharin, and Red Army officers were also purged Accused individuals were usually arrested at night, then taken to Lubyanka (the NKVD headquarters) There, they were tortured until they confessed; the OGPU chief for Siberia, Leonid Zakovsky, produced a handbook of torture methods High-profile cases led to show trials where the accused gave public confessions Confessions were often exchanged for promises of safety for their families or reduced sentences—but these promises were not always honoured The accused were also forced to name associates, helping spread the purges

Question 26

What role did Yagoda play in the expansion of the secret police and the Gulag system?

Answer 26

Genrikh Yagoda became head of the NKVD in 1934 Ambitious and eager to prove loyalty to Stalin, he oversaw the rapid expansion of the Gulag Labour camps, originally used under Lenin for reform, were transformed into a system of forced labour in 1930 Gulag prisoners were sent to inhospitable areas, where many died from cold and starvation, alongside guards and dogs Yagoda ensured the secret police could operate without court interference The focus of the Gulag shifted from ideology to economic exploitation, using prisoners as a labour force One major project was the White Sea Canal, a 141-mile canal built by 180,000 Gulag labourers The canal was dug by hand, completed under budget in less than two years, but cost at least 10,000 lives However, it was only 12 feet (3.6 m) deep, making it useless for most ships

Question 27

Why was Yagoda eventually removed and executed?

Answer 27

As the Great Purge began in 1936, Yagoda was ordered to arrest alleged Trotskyites within the Party But he was soon accused of incompetence—particularly in failing to protect Kirov, whose assassination triggered the purges He was also criticised for not pursuing opponents with enough zeal In 1936, Yagoda was dismissed and, by 1938, executed on Stalin’s orders

Question 28

Who was Nikolai Yezhov and how did he lead the NKVD?

Answer 28

Yezhov replaced Yagoda as head of the NKVD He was known for personally torturing suspects and was nicknamed the "bloody dwarf" due to his height (5 feet / 1.5 m) and brutality Under his leadership, the NKVD oversaw the most extreme phase of the purges He framed the purges ideologically, accusing victims of opposing communism and the Soviet state

Question 29

How did Yezhov change the legal and arrest system?

Answer 29

He speeded up the process of arrest, trial, and imprisonment Created "troikas" (courts of three people, including the regional NKVD chief) to try cases In September 1937, the Karelian Troika processed 231 prisoners per day

Question 30

What changes did Yezhov make to the Gulag system?

Answer 30

Yezhov saw the Gulag as underused—inmate numbers and death rates increased significantly In July 1937, he ordered camps to meet execution quotas NKVD officers received medals for carrying out executions, but were often executed themselves months later to meet new quotas

Question 31

How did Yezhov increase surveillance and repression across the USSR?

Answer 31

Surveillance by the NKVD increased massively Plain-clothes officers and public informers were used to monitor citizens The Soviet criminal code was widely used to convict people of anti-Soviet activity The number of NKVD detectives quadrupled, and extra staff were employed for torture

Question 32

How broad did repression become under Yezhov?

Answer 32

Definition of “opponent” widened to include anyone lacking enthusiasm for the Revolution Even NKVD members themselves were purged The message was clear: any deviation could result in arrest or death

Question 33

What does Yezhov’s personal behaviour reveal about the atmosphere of the time?

Answer 33

Yezhov took pleasure in torture and once attended a Politburo meeting with blood on his shirt cuffs from torturing suspects He became physically and mentally unwell due to his heavy drinking and intense workload

Question 34

Why was Yezhov removed from power and what role did Stalin play in this?

Answer 34

By 1938, Stalin worried that excessive terror was demoralising the population, especially with war against Germany looming Yezhov was dismissed in 1938 and blamed for the excesses of the purges Stalin used Yezhov as a scapegoat to reduce terror while deflecting blame

Question 35

Who was Lavrenti Beria and how did he come to power?

Answer 35

Beria succeeded Yezhov as head of the NKVD in 1938 Known for organisational skill but also perverted and violent behaviour, including sexual assault of young women abducted from the streets (according to historian Rupert Butler) He undermined Yezhov by criticising him to Stalin to secure his position

Question 36

How was Beria initially perceived and how did his approach differ from Yezhov?

Answer 36

Presented to the public as an uncle-like reformer, which brought some relief Believed indiscriminate arrests were wasteful and inefficient Introduced more conventional police procedures and used evidence-based arrests Continued surveillance, but arrests occurred only when evidence existed

Question 37

What major success did Beria achieve while head of the NKVD?

Answer 37

Oversaw the assassination of Leon Trotsky in Mexico (1940) by a Stalinist agent

Question 38

How did Beria reform and expand the Gulag system?

Answer 38

Aimed to make the Gulag economically productive In 1939, food rations were increased to extract more work from prisoners—not for humanitarian reasons Used inmates’ technical skills, cancelling early releases to retain expertise About 1,000 scientists were put to work on major projects Included Andrei Tupolev (aviation) and Sergei Korolev (future space programme) Claimed these projects produced new military hardware (a dubious claim)

Question 39

What was the economic impact of Beria’s management of the Gulag?

Answer 39

Gulag output grew from 2 billion roubles (1937) to 4.5 billion roubles (1940) By the early 1960s, the Gulag was a major part of the Soviet economy It produced over one-third of the USSR’s gold and large portions of its timber and coal

Question 40

What happened during the post-war rivalry in Stalin's final years?

Answer 40

Rivalry grew in the Politburo as Stalin's health declined. Beria, head of the secret police, launched new purges to gain Stalin’s favour. In 1949, over 2,000 members of the Leningrad Party branch were imprisoned or exiled. Beria gained power by fulfilling Stalin’s orders but remained subordinate to Stalin.

Question 41

What was the Mingrelian Affair (1951) and how did it affect Beria?

Answer 41

The purge targeted the Georgian Party and especially Mingrelians — Beria's own ethnic group. Seen as a possible warning from Stalin to Beria about his growing influence.

Question 42

What was the Doctors’ Plot (1953)?

Answer 42

A group of doctors were arrested in January 1953, accused of plotting to assassinate Stalin. Most of the accused were Jewish, possibly indicating an impending campaign against Soviet Jews. Could also have been a prelude to a purge of Beria and other leaders. Stalin died before this next purge could take place.

Question 43

How powerful was Beria at the time of Stalin's death?

Answer 43

Controlled the secret police, the Soviet global spy network, the Gulag system, and related industries. His dominance alarmed the Politburo, who quickly removed him in June 1953. Khrushchev, whom Beria dismissed as a "moon-faced idiot", led the move against him.

Question 44

What impact did Beria's removal have on the use of terror?

Answer 44

The independence of the secret police was curtailed. The KGB (Soviet Security and Intelligence Service) was established in 1954, answerable to the Party. The Gulag system was dismantled, and forced labour was ended in the Soviet economy. Even the infamous Lubyanka prison was closed; the last inmate was US pilot Gary Powers in 1960.

Question 45

What was the role and function of the KGB?

Answer 45

Formed in 1954 to bring the secret police back under Party control. Dealt with internal and external threats, including spying and dissent. Led by Yuri Andropov from 1967 until he became General Secretary in 1982. Developed a reputation for professionalism and effectiveness, in contrast to the brutal image of Stalin’s era.

Question 46

What was Stalin’s personal responsibility in the use of terror?

Answer 46

Though he did not create the Gulag (it existed under Lenin), its vast expansion was due to Stalin’s actions post-1928. Personally signed death warrants, often adding names or comments demanding more arrests. Set quotas for NKVD arrests and executions—failure to meet quotas could result in NKVD officers adding their own names. Terror was a key tool for collectivisation (to eliminate kulaks) and the Five-Year Plans (to scapegoat for failure).

Question 47

How did Stalin use terror to support his policies?

Answer 47

Terror supported collectivisation by removing opposition, mainly kulaks. Unrealistic industrial targets meant managers often labelled workers as saboteurs to justify failure. Historian Ivan Chukhin believed the terror was driven by demand for slave labour to fulfil Stalin’s plans. Example: Soviet geologists were arrested before a camp was set up in the Komi Republic to exploit natural reserves.

Question 48

How did Stalin shape the purges?

Answer 48

Initiated the Great Purge using Kirov’s 1934 assassination as justification. Dismissal of Yezhov in 1938 marked a signal to reduce the purges. Stalin’s death led directly to a drop in terror and the dismantling of the Gul

Question 49

How did Stalin’s personality influence the terror?

Answer 49

His paranoia played a large role, possibly worsened by Kirov’s death. The 1953 Doctors’ Plot showed his anti-Semitic views and personal suspicion of Kremlin doctors. Stalin’s paranoia shaped the scope and focus of repression.

Question 50

Did Yagoda, Yezhov, and Beria influence terror, or were they just tools of Stalin?

Answer 50

All three were chosen for their loyalty and willingness to follow Stalin’s brutal methods. Each had sadistic tendencies and used torture freely. Their power came from Stalin and they were removed when no longer useful. Yagoda and Yezhov were dismissed by Stalin; Beria was eliminated shortly after Stalin’s death.

Question 51

Did the heads of the NKVD affect the direction of terror?

Answer 51

The targets of terror were always decided by Stalin, based on policy and personal suspicion. However, each NKVD head used terror to advance their own careers. Yagoda tried to build his influence; Yezhov undermined Yagoda; Beria did the same to Yezhov.

Question 52

How did the NKVD heads affect the implementation of terror?

Answer 52

Yagoda oversaw Gulag expansion during collectivisation, though it struggled to cope. Yezhov accelerated the terror, reflecting his frenzied and sadistic personality. Under Yezhov, repression became pervasive in society. Beria made the Gulag more productive, using prisoners’ skills for industry and science. Beria’s version of terror was more economically rational but not more humane.

Question 53

How did Stalin use others to deflect blame for terror?

Answer 53

Stalin allowed the image that the worst excesses were the work of others. Introduced Beria to US President Roosevelt as “our Himmler,” comparing him to the head of the Nazi SS. Historian Anne Applebaum: “Stalin selected the victims and his subordinates leaped at the opportunity to obey him.”

Question 54

What changes occurred in the suppression of dissent after Stalin's death, and how did the KGB operate under Andropov?

Answer 54

After Stalin's death in 1953, the use of mass terror declined, but surveillance of perceived enemies continued. The KGB (Committee for State Security) took over internal security from 1953 and was led by Yuri Andropov from 1967. Arrests became more targeted; people were no longer arrested “for nothing” (as poet Anna Akhmatova noted), but for specific acts of dissent.

Question 55

Who were the dissidents, and what did they have in common?

Answer 55

Dissidents were individuals who criticised the Soviet state or system and came from a wide range of backgrounds. They included intellectuals, political activists, nationalists, religious figures, and refuseniks. Most dissidents shared concerns about human rights and freedom of expression, not necessarily opposition to communism itself. Many were committed communists seeking reform rather than revolution.

Question 56

What challenges did intellectual dissidents face under the Soviet regime?

Answer 56

Intellectuals were expected to conform politically if they wanted promotion, which clashed with their independent thinking. Andrei Sakharov, a leading nuclear scientist, protested restrictions on foreign scientific collaboration. In 1970, Sakharov and other scientists wrote a letter to Brezhnev, expressing frustration. As punishment, Sakharov was banned from further military research. Other notable intellectual dissidents included Roy Medvedev (historian), Zhores Medvedev (scientist), and Alexander Solzhenitsyn (novelist). They faced restrictions on work and travel, limiting their professional and personal freedoms.

Question 57

Who were the political dissidents, and what were their goals?

Answer 57

Political dissidents sought to hold the Soviet government accountable to its own laws. They focused on human rights abuses and violations of international agreements such as: The UN Declaration on Human Rights (1948) The Helsinki Accords (1975) These groups monitored Soviet compliance and publicised violations.

Question 58

How did nationalist dissidents challenge Soviet authority?

Answer 58

Nationalist groups in Ukraine, Latvia, Lithuania, and Georgia demanded greater recognition of their languages and cultures, and in some cases, independence. In 1964, the regime attempted to suppress Ukrainian nationalism by banning celebrations of Taras Shevchenko's 150th anniversary and 20 nationalist arrests followed. A mysterious fire at the Ukrainian archive in Kiev's Academy of Sciences added to tensions. In 1974, four Lithuanian groups formed a National Popular Front, demanding: Lithuanian as the republic’s official language An end to Soviet colonisation The state responded with further arrests to deter these movements. Many nationalists were supported by compatriots abroad, which alarmed the regime further.

Question 59

What forms did religious dissent take in the USSR?

Answer 59

Religious groups such as Baptists and Catholics faced restrictions on worship and practice. Catholic dissidents were especially prominent in Baltic republics, notably Lithuania.

Question 60

Who were the refuseniks, and why were they significant?

Answer 60

Refuseniks were Soviet Jews who were denied permission to emigrate to Israel. Their cause gained strong support from the U.S. Congress, making them a recurring issue at U.S.–USSR summits. The USSR’s treatment of refuseniks drew international criticism and diplomatic pressure.

Question 61

What methods did dissidents use to spread their views, and how did these evolve?

Answer 61

Dissidents rarely engaged in open protest; instead, they focused on producing and distributing materials that criticised the system. These illegal, self-published writings were called samizdat. Samizdat included handwritten poems, newsletters, and transcripts of Voice of America broadcasts. A well-known example was the Chronicle of Current Events, a newsletter documenting human rights abuses and dissident treatment. By the 1970s, dissident methods expanded to include contact with the foreign press, making their cases more widely known. Producing samizdat became a popular hobby among dissidents by the late 1960s.

Question 62

What measures did the Soviet secret police take against dissidents under Andropov?

Answer 62

The KGB under Andropov used surveillance and harassment to monitor suspected dissidents. Intellectuals were often: Threatened with expulsion from professional organisations Denied permission to publish Dismissed from their jobs The homes of dissidents were searched, and any equipment or material that could spread dissent was confiscated. Arrested dissidents knew the reason for their arrest and claimed the status of political prisoners of conscience. They were separated from criminal prisoners in detention. Being labelled a dissident brought civilian discrimination, including: Surveillance and harassment Job discrimination Blocked university admissions

Question 63

How many political prisoners were there in the USSR by the mid-1970s, according to Amnesty International?

Answer 63

At most 10,000 political prisoners — a small but significant number.

Question 64

How did changes to Soviet criminal law affect dissidents?

Answer 64

A new criminal code in 1960 abolished night-time interrogations and limited the powers of the KGB. However, Article 70 still allowed punishment for "anti-Soviet agitation and propaganda", a vague and flexible term. The 1966 trial of writers Andrei Sinyovsky and Yuli Daniel exposed the problem of proving intent under the new law. As a result, in 1966, new laws were passed that removed the need to prove intent, giving the state more power. Despite these changes, cases had to go through courts, and court records were kept, enabling dissidents to publicise their cases.

Question 65

How were psychiatric hospitals used to suppress dissidents?

Answer 65

In 1967, the Politburo ordered leading dissident Vladimir Bukovsky to be placed in a “special mental hospital”. This method discredited dissidents in public and avoided treating them as political prisoners. These hospitals were run by the NKVD and detained people until they were “cured” — meaning they changed their views. Those who refused were subjected to electric shocks and drugs. Notable victims included: Zhores Medvedev, diagnosed with “sluggish schizophrenia” Natalya Gorbanevskaya, editor of the Chronicle of Current Events Conditions in these hospitals were overcrowded and unhygienic, damaging the international reputation of the USSR.

Question 66

What other methods were used to limit the influence of dissidents?

Answer 66

Dissidents were often sent into internal exile, especially academics, explaining the high quality of work in remote institutions like the Siberian division of the Academy of Sciences. In 1980, Andrei Sakharov was sent to Gorky, a city closed to foreigners, cutting him off from supporters. Expulsion from the USSR was another tactic, used against those who persisted — for example, Alexander Solzhenitsyn in 1974.

Question 67

What impact did dissidents have inside and outside the USSR?

Answer 67

Court records were smuggled out and used by Western human rights groups, generating negative publicity. The USSR became increasingly concerned with its global image, especially after signing the Helsinki Accords in 1975. The Accords promised freedom of thought, conscience, and belief. Human rights violations against dissidents were framed as breaches of this agreement. In the age of global mass communication, arrests of prominent dissidents led to international condemnation and sometimes forced the USSR to release them.

Question 68

How much support did dissidents have within the USSR?

Answer 68

Dissidents had little support from the public and never formed a coherent group or political movement. Their protests were often small and symbolically weak. In 1968, only seven people protested in Red Square against the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia. Fear of the secret police was a major reason for the low turnout.

Question 69

How effective were Andropov’s methods in controlling dissent by the end of the 1970s?

Answer 69

Dissident groups remained small, divided, and mistrustful of one another. Methods shifted from Stalin’s terror and torture to more subtle repression, using tools like: Advanced surveillance (e.g., electronic bugging devices) Psychiatric abuse Professional exclusion Under Andropov, the KGB's professionalism, status, and reputation grew considerably, reflecting the sophistication of its methods.

Question 70

What past experiences shaped Andropov's views on popular discontent when he became General Secretary in 1982?

Answer 70

Andropov had significant experience from his time as head of the KGB. He served as Soviet Ambassador to Hungary during the 1956 Hungarian Uprising, which convinced him that dissident activity could escalate into mass unrest. Though other Politburo members were less concerned, Andropov’s views shaped government policy during his leadership.

Question 71

How did Andropov respond to dissidents after becoming General Secretary?

Answer 71

In 1982, monitoring of dissident groups increased, making it one of the most difficult periods for dissidents, including those in the Chronicle of Current Events. Surveillance was supported by advancing technology, including: Tape and cassette recorders Hidden listening devices and cameras in briefcases and bras Plain-clothes KGB officers still followed people in the streets, reinforcing public fear. The KGB was well-informed about dissident criticisms, but by this point, dissidents no longer posed a real threat to political or social stability.

Question 72

Why did Andropov focus on economic concerns rather than political dissent?

Answer 72

He recognised that most Soviet citizens were not dissidents, and that economic discontent was a greater risk to stability. He was concerned about growing inefficiency in the Soviet economy. The 1980–81 unrest in Poland, caused by rising food prices, served as a warning. He told his doctor: “We’ll make enough sausages, and then we won’t have any dissidents.”

Question 73

What actions did Andropov take to address economic inefficiency and worker discipline?

Answer 73

He used the KGB to clamp down on alcoholism and absenteeism in the workplace. KGB officers conducted spot checks in factories and patrolled the streets for truant workers. These actions angered female workers, who were often forced to queue for food, a daily necessity due to: Government-set low prices, which caused goods to sell out quickly The need to be in the right queue at the right time Public response showed they preferred queuing over higher food prices.

Question 74

How did Andropov try to reconnect the Party with the public?

Answer 74

He recognised that the Party leadership was dominated by out-of-touch old men. Andropov urged the Politburo to understand the society they governed, a significant shift from earlier Soviet leadership. In February 1983, he visited a Moscow factory to speak with workers, but the event was contrived and awkward. Though sincere, Andropov was humourless, austere, and intimidating, especially as the former head of the KGB.

Question 75

Who did Andropov bring into government to better understand public concerns?

Answer 75

He appointed new advisers from outside traditional Party structures — many were journalists and academics. He relied on sociologists and economists from Novosibirsk, especially Tatyana Zaslavskaya, who argued that: The arbitrary nature of Soviet administration was a key source of public resentment.

Question 76

Which younger officials did Andropov promote during his leadership?

Answer 76

He made a conscious effort to promote a younger, more reformist generation. These officials had experience in lower Party ranks and were more connected to daily Soviet life. Key figures promoted included: Mikhail Gorbachev Yegor Ligachev Nikolai Ryzhkov All would later play key roles in Soviet reform efforts.

Question 77

To what extent was Andropov successful in addressing popular discontent?

Answer 77

His monitoring methods showed a genuine desire to meet public needs and confirmed his belief in the need for reform. However, real progress stalled because: He focused on discipline over structural change His ill health prevented him from implementing broader reforms Despite these limits, he laid groundwork for later reform through personnel changes and new thinking.

Question 78

Was the Soviet Union socially unstable during Andropov’s leadership (1982–85)?

Answer 78

Despite popular discontent, the USSR remained socially stable in the mid-1980s. There was little public criticism and rare social conflict. A well-established system of propaganda, censorship, rewards, and sanctions maintained control. However, this did not mean the public was content — “grumbling” was a popular Soviet pastime.

Question 79

Why did the Soviet government see culture as important for spreading communist ideology?

Answer 79

The regime recognised that propaganda and terror alone were not enough to instil communist values. They aimed to create a ‘new Soviet man’ by constructing a new culture that would sweep away old bourgeois traditions. Artists and writers were expected to help embed Communist beliefs and promote the new ideology. Although Lenin was initially slow to appreciate culture’s role, the post-Civil War period saw a deliberate effort to use it to support socialism. Under Stalin in the 1930s, a full-scale campaign was launched to promote idealised images of socialist life.

Question 80

How did artists and writers respond to Soviet cultural demands by the 1970s?

Answer 80

By the 1970s, Soviet culture had a distinct ethos but those expected to promote this culture often resisted conformity. Many artists and writers were opposed to the restrictions and conflicted with the regime's need for control.

Question 81

What cultural traditions and tensions existed in Russia before and after 1917?

Answer 81

Russia had a rich, elite-based cultural tradition before the Revolution, but it was limited to the educated few. After 1917, cultural development was influenced by: Radical experimentation with new ideas Conservative tastes among some leaders Political pressures stemming from revolution and ideology This created tensions within the Bolsheviks over what direction culture should take.

Question 82

What were Lenin’s views on culture and how did he act on them?

Answer 82

Lenin saw culture as important but subordinate to class struggle and power retention. His cultural tastes were conservative, favouring classical Russian works. He wanted to retain the support of skilled writers and artists, even if they were not Communists. He established the Commissariat of Enlightenment, a ministry of culture aimed at encouraging artists. This replaced Tsarist censorship, and many artists welcomed the change. Lenin tolerated non-Communist but sympathetic artists, labelled by Trotsky as “Fellow Travellers”.

Question 83

What was Prolekult and who promoted it?

Answer 83

Prolekult (Proletarian Culture) was promoted by Alexander Bogdanov and Anatoly Lunacharsky (head of the Commissariat of Enlightenment). Bogdanov argued that new technology should be used to develop a distinct proletarian culture. The goal was to form a new class of proletarian artists, producing art that served social and political purposes.

Question 84

What were the key features and activities of Prolekult?

Answer 84

Constructivists emerged from Prolekult, aiming to build a new socialist culture focused on the collective. Workers and peasants were encouraged to create their own culture: Writing stories Performing in theatre The magazine ‘Sway’ published poems about machines and factories, reflecting socialist themes. The state used festivals to promote new cultural norms: Crowds were attracted with extra food rations. In 1920, the storming of the Winter Palace was re-enacted using over 8,000 participants. Red Square parades were staged as street theatre under Party direction. These activities reinforced the role of workers and celebrated the Party’s achievements.

Question 85

Why did Prolekult face government restrictions in the early 1920s?

Answer 85

Despite its early popularity, the government became concerned about the diversity of views being expressed. The variety of political and cultural ideas from the people through Prolekult prompted the government to start imposing restrictions. The state preferred controlled, uniform messaging rather than artistic freedom.

Question 86

What was the avant-garde movement and how did it emerge in post-revolutionary Russia?

Answer 86

Avant-garde was a wave of cultural experimentation and innovation that emerged after the First World War and the Russian Revolution. It challenged traditional assumptions about the purpose, subjects and style of art. It was driven by both the collapse of the old world order and the opportunities offered by the new Bolshevik government.

Question 87

How did avant-garde art develop in the early Soviet period?

Answer 87

Art was influenced by Modernism (focus on abstraction) and Futurism (depicting a new, revolutionary future). Artists like K. Malevich and V. Kandinsky were ‘Fellow Travellers’ producing experimental works in the 1920s. Avant-garde art was encouraged especially due to low literacy levels—visual art was key for mass communication.

Question 88

How did poster art and poetry support the regime during the avant-garde period?

Answer 88

The regime used the talents of V. Mayakovsky, a poet and playwright, to create posters and slogans. His work, while propagandistic, was genuinely innovative.

Question 89

What role did theatre and music play in the avant-garde movement?

Answer 89

In theatre, Vyacheslav Meyerhold led the avant-garde movement with his 1918 play Mystery Bouffe. The play, a fantasy about workers defeating exploiters, was so confusing it was cancelled after one performance. In music, avant-garde introduced jazz to Russia, receiving mixed reviews.

Question 90

What impact did avant-garde have on cinema and literature?

Answer 90

Cinema was a new and highly experimental medium in this period. Sergei Eisenstein emerged as a leading figure: Strike (1924) and Battleship Potemkin (1925) were innovative in imagery and editing. Lenin recognised the importance of cinema for political messaging, though its complexity often confused audiences. The avant-garde failed to effectively mould public values due to its abstract nature.

Question 91

What was the Cultural Revolution and how did it change Soviet cultural policy in the late 1920s?

Answer 91

The Cultural Revolution marked a shift away from freedom in the arts and was linked to wider radical policies like the Five-Year Plans and collectivisation. It was a full-scale assault on traditional and bourgeois artists, including removal of Fellow Travellers. Artists were replaced with those whose loyalty to socialism was guaranteed.

Question 92

What actions did young Communists and official groups take during the Cultural Revolution?

Answer 92

Komsomol (Communist youth) were encouraged to identify and attack bourgeois culture. They disrupted suspect theatre productions with booing and whistling. The Russian Association of Proletarian Writers (RAPP) led attacks on experimental writers. It condemned ‘decadent individualism’ and promoted socialist values.

Question 93

What types of literature and themes were promoted during the Cultural Revolution?

Answer 93

RAPP promoted the cult of the ‘little man’, praising ordinary workers’ achievements. Valentin Kataev’s novel Time, Forward! (1932) depicted a record-breaking steel shift at Magnitogorsk, exemplifying this genre. The typical theme was often mocked as ‘boy meets girl meets tractor’, linking romance and industry. These stories aligned with the Five-Year Plans but quickly lost popularity due to repetition and predictability.

Question 94

How did the Cultural Revolution attempt to spread socialist culture at the grassroots level?

Answer 94

RAPP organised reading circles and drama groups in factories. These efforts were somewhat successful in promoting worker engagement with culture.

Question 95

What was Socialist Realism and when was it introduced?

Answer 95

Introduced in 1932, when the Russian Association of Proletarian Writers (RAPP) was closed down. Replaced by the Union of Soviet Writers, which policed and promoted Socialist Realism. Aimed to present idealised images of life under socialism to inspire the population. Stalin called writers and artists "engineers of human souls"—their role was to shape Soviet values. It marked the end of the Cultural Revolution and the beginning of tightly state-controlled art.

Question 96

How did Socialist Realism affect writers and literary culture?

Answer 96

Writers had to present stories of Party-led heroes achieving greatness, often from humble origins. Emphasis shifted from the “little man” to characters guided by the Party. Leading figures included Mikhail Sholokhov (And Quiet Flows the Don) and Maxim Gorky, whose stories resembled traditional folk tales. “Lowbrow” literature included war stories, historical fiction, and detective novels—cheap and widely accessible. Library acquisitions grew tenfold, ensuring mass access. All publishing was controlled through government agencies.

Question 97

How did Stalin's final years influence Soviet cultural policy?

Answer 97

After World War II, there were signs that the government might allow artists and writers more freedom. In 1946, poets Boris Pasternak and Anna Akhmatova were permitted to give public readings of their unorthodox poetry in Moscow, receiving enthusiastic applause. However, this freedom was quickly retracted with the Zhdanovschina campaign. Led by Andrei Zhdanov, the campaign sought to remove Western influences and bourgeois culture. Dmitri Shostakovich, a famous classical composer, was humiliated by Zhdanov in 1946, where Zhdanov tapped out tunes for Shostakovich to follow. Shostakovich was forced to focus on film scores after this incident.

Question 98

What was the cultural shift in the years following Stalin's death?

Answer 98

After World War II, there were brief signs of cultural freedom in Stalin's last years, but this was quickly suppressed. Boris Pasternak and Anna Akhmatova were allowed to give public readings of their unorthodox poetry in Moscow in 1946, receiving enthusiastic applause. However, a campaign against Western culture, called the Zhdanovschina, was launched in 1946 to remove all bourgeois influences. Dmitri Shostakovich, the composer, was humiliated by Zhdanov, who tapped out tunes on a piano for him, stating that there was little point in composing un-hummable music. Following this, Shostakovich restricted himself to writing film scores.

Question 99

How did de-Stalinisation under Khrushchev affect Soviet culture?

Answer 99

After 1957, Khrushchev's policy of de-Stalinisation allowed for greater freedom of expression. Works previously banned were allowed to be published, including those by Isaac Babel, who had been executed during Stalin's purges. Younger poets like Yevgeny Yevtushenko and Andrei Voznesensky were allowed to publish experimental poetry. Jazz music made a comeback in the USSR during this period. Khrushchev personally intervened to allow the publication of Solzhenitsyn’s book One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich (1962), which depicted life in the Gulag. Solzhenitsyn’s subsequent works continued to critique Stalin’s terror and aligned with the political context of de-Stalinisation.

Question 100

What were the limits on cultural freedom during Khrushchev's de-Stalinisation?

Answer 100

Although there was greater freedom, works that didn’t fit the political context were still subject to restrictions. Writers such as Sholokhov openly criticised official Soviet culture, calling it “grey trash”. New themes like spiritual concerns, rural life’s bleakness, and social issues (adultery, divorce, alcoholism) became central in literature, breaking from Socialist Realism. Science-fiction novels often contained critiques of Soviet society, embedding subtle resistance.

Question 101

How did nonconformity impact youth culture in the late 1950s?

Answer 101

By the late 1950s, nonconformity began to shape youth culture in the USSR. Soviet youth, tired of the repetitive official culture, turned to Western pop and rock'n'roll music. These Western records were smuggled into the country, and youth groups adopted Western fashions (tight suits and short skirts). The authorities labeled these youth as “salyagi”, describing them as rude, ignorant freaks. From 1955, the Voice of America broadcasted this music into the USSR. Alexander Galich, a guitar poet, became a leading figure, composing songs that focused on individual emotions and alienation. Underground venues hosted small audiences, but through tape recorders, the music spread widely, leading to Magnitizda (tape recorder self-publishing), which was a headache for the authorities.

Question 102

What were the cultural changes during Brezhnev's leadership (1964-1982)?

Answer 102

Under Brezhnev, there was no return to Stalin's strict application of Socialist Realism, but there was a narrowing of acceptable cultural boundaries compared to Khrushchev's thaw. Many artists and writers found the new cultural climate easier, with clearer guidelines on what was permissible. However, some artists continued to push boundaries, while official culture still focused on propaganda and the achievements of socialism. As historian Richard Stites noted, this period became a "graveyard of ideas," with fewer opportunities for openness or free expression.

Question 103

What aspects of nonconformity were present in Brezhnev’s era?

Answer 103

By the 1970s, Soviet culture became more conservative, and topics like sexuality were more likely to get artists into trouble than political themes. The drevneshi school of village prose romanticised rural life, causing unease among the government, as it could be read as a critique of urban Soviet life. Russian nationalism was partially encouraged, but Russite writers alienated non-Russians and sometimes criticised the Soviet system. Popular music continued to influence Soviet youth, who increasingly identified with Western cultural trends. Vladimir Vysotsky, a guitar poet, became an influential figure, with his songs about sex and delinquency. His funeral in 1980 was marked by an outpouring of grief, worrying the authorities, as he wasn’t the ideal role model for Soviet youth. The authorities struggled to control the rise of rock and disco music, despite attempts at radio control and limiting record production. The development of the cassette recorder by the early 1980s allowed for personal recording and distribution, undermining government control.

Question 104

How did the Brezhnev years affect Soviet artists and writers?

Answer 104

By the early 1980s, nonconformity was still a source of government irritation, though easier to subvert compared to earlier periods. Artists and writers continued to use subtext to undermine the system and criticise official culture. Many emigrated or were forced into exile, while others refused to work within the official system. Soviet readers and audiences had become skilled at interpreting the subtext of art, allowing resistance to thrive despite official control.

Question 105

What were the cultural clashes with the government after 1953?

Answer 105

After 1953, cultural restrictions were lessened, but artists and writers constantly tested the boundaries of permissibility. Nonconformity no longer automatically resulted in prison sentences, but clashes with the government still occurred, and clampdowns by the authorities were frequent.

Question 106

How did Khrushchev's cultural policies lead to clashes with artists?

Answer 106

Khrushchev's cultural thaw was limited, and this was evident in his treatment of Boris Pasternak and his novel Doctor Zhivago. Doctor Zhivago was a novel set during the Russian Civil War, and it contained criticisms of the Revolution. Soviet publishers were undecided about whether to publish the novel, and Khrushchev intervened, deciding that the book should be banned, even without reading it in full. Despite the ban, the book was smuggled abroad, and a 1967 edition was first published in Italy. The novel was met with extremely positive reception, and Pasternak was awarded the 1958 Nobel Prize for Literature. Khrushchev refused to allow Pasternak to travel to Sweden to receive his prize. The entire affair caused international embarrassment for the Soviet government, and Khrushchev later regretted his actions.

Question 107

What happened with abstract art during Khrushchev’s leadership?

Answer 107

Abstract art was another area where nonconformity was discouraged under Khrushchev. In 1962, Khrushchev visited an exhibition of young artists' work in the Kremlin and was furious when he saw their abstract art. He famously declared that "a donkey could smear better art with its tail". The artists were publicly harangued in front of cameras, and they left the exhibition fearful of arrest. Despite his anger, no official action was taken against the artists, demonstrating that some freedoms had changed during Khrushchev's reign.

Question 108

How did the government control youth behavior during Khrushchev’s era?

Answer 108

Komsomol groups (youth organizations) were used to patrol the streets and dance halls, reporting on young people whose behavior was considered unacceptable. In 1961, the government held a conference to decide which dance moves were acceptable in Soviet culture. The enforcement of these rules proved to be a complete failure, as youth behavior continued to be hard to control.

Question 109

What was Khrushchev's overall approach to cultural nonconformity?

Answer 109

Khrushchev's cultural policies reflected his mood swings, with his tolerance for nonconformity fluctuating. In his last months as leader, Khrushchev became less tolerant of nonconformity, and this attitude was entrenched by his successors.

Question 110

What happened in the trial of Joseph Brodsky in 1964?

Answer 110

Joseph Brodsky dropped out of school at 15 and decided to write poetry. Encouraged by Anna Akhmatova, Brodsky's poems were read aloud at secret gatherings. The secret police soon became aware of Brodsky’s actions, and he was arrested. Brodsky was not licensed as a poet under the Writers' Union. He was accused of parasitism and condemned for the "depravity of his poetry". The trial was used to send a firm message to artists wishing to work independently of the state. Brodsky was sentenced to five years of hard labour for producing work that had no material value for the Soviet state. However, due to the legal apparatus used against him, court records were kept and smuggled abroad. Fellow writers campaigned for Brodsky’s release, which was granted after two years. Brodsky was expelled from the Soviet Union after his release. This case showed that, despite Khrushchev's cultural thaw, limits still existed in Brezhnev's government.

Question 111

What were the events surrounding the trial of Andrei Sinyavsky and Yuli Daniel in 1966?

Answer 111

In 1965, Andrei Sinyavsky and Yuli Daniel were arrested for writing novels that depicted life in the Soviet Union as harsh and surreal. They used pseudonyms for their works, but soon came to the attention of the KGB. They were accused of anti-Soviet propaganda under Article 70 of the criminal code. Their arrest led to a demonstration of over 200 students and an open letter of support signed by 63 intellectuals. More than 200 letters were sent to the Twenty-third Party Congress asking for the case to be reviewed. On 10 February 1966, Sinyavsky was sentenced to seven years in a strict-regime labour camp and Daniel to five years. These were harsh sentences designed to send a warning to other artists and writers.

Question 112

How did Brezhnev's government control and clamp down on culture?

Answer 112

The government attempted to control cultural output through an extensive system of state subsidies and access to radio and venues. Artists and writers who served the interests of the state were given awards and privileges. Employment could be withdrawn from troublemakers. Artists or writers who strayed too far from what was acceptable were given a warning by a government official. Those who continued to push boundaries faced more punitive measures. Solzhenitsyn was expelled from the Writers' Union in 1969 and later expelled from the Soviet Union in 1974. Solzhenitsyn continued writing in exile, and his book The Gulag Archipelago was condemned as anti-Soviet propaganda. Abstract and experimental art remained a source of conflict. In 1970, the director of a Novosibirsk art gallery was sentenced to eight years in prison for displaying dissident art. In 1975, unofficial artists held an open-air exhibition, which led to a propaganda campaign against them, and an officially recruited mob attacked their work. The government used bulldozers to destroy the exhibition, but after foreign press coverage, the art was put back on display after being patched up.

Question 113

How did Andropov’s government deal with subversive elements in popular culture?

Answer 113

Andropov’s government (1982-84) cracked down on subversive elements in popular culture, recognizing that some accommodation was necessary. The government restricted non-official music to only 20 percent of radio airtime. A commission was set up to vet all rock groups before they could perform publicly. Komsomol groups were once again employed to patrol the streets and report on unacceptable activity.

Question 114

How did the Soviet public respond to cultural nonconformity?

Answer 114

High-profile clashes between nonconformist artists and the government were of less significance within the USSR. Most artists and writers preferred to conform and avoid trouble with the authorities. The general public was largely happy with the traditional cultural output provided by the government, favoring undemanding art and entertainment. Nonconformist artists were often seen as self-indulgent and out of touch with the harsh realities of daily life.

Question 115

What was the overall approach of the Soviet government to cultural control?

Answer 115

The government moved from terror (during Stalin’s years) to a more complex range of methods for control. Propaganda and cultural control became more important as the use of terror decreased. By the 1950s, the government recognized that public consent for Communist Party rule depended on the ability to deliver better economic conditions and material benefits. Without these, the boasts of Soviet achievements presented in propaganda would be seen as empty. By the 1970s, the main threat to order and stability was economic hardship rather than calls for political change.