Fall of the USSR (1985-91) Flashcards
(70 cards)
How important were economic weaknesses in bringing about the fall of the USSR?
The Soviet government justified its legitimacy by meeting the material needs of its people.
This became more important after 1953, when terror was reduced, and the government relied on material welfare to maintain the acquiescence of the population.
Economic performance was critical for the government to sustain this legitimacy and to meet public needs.
When Gorbachev became General Secretary in 1985, the Soviet economy was already in decline.
The Novosibirsk Report of 1983, compiled by Tatyana Zaslavskaya, highlighted the crisis in agriculture due to state inefficiency and inflexibility.
The report was for internal use and was ignored by most Politburo members except for Gorbachev, who recognized the need for reform, though he was unclear about the solution.
Gorbachev’s reforms ended up dismantling the Soviet economic system, causing disruption and chaos.
What were Gorbachev’s initial economic reforms?
Gorbachev’s initial steps were cautious, positioning like-minded reformers in key positions.
In July 1985, Grigory Romanov, a rival in the Politburo, was dismissed.
Key reformers like Yegor Ligachev and Nikola Ryzhkov were brought into the Politburo.
Boris Yeltsin and Alexander Yakovlev were promoted to the Central Committee in 1986.
Gorbachev launched reforms with a focus on improving the economy, following his mentor Andropov’s approach.
A campaign was launched to tackle rampant alcoholism which was affecting productivity, as alcohol accounted for 15% of household spending by the mid-1980s.
Measures were introduced: the legal drinking age was raised to 21, alcohol outlets were reduced, vineyards were destroyed, and distilleries were closed.
The cost of vodka tripled, but the campaign had a limited success; tax revenue from alcohol dropped significantly.
Illegal moonshine production increased, and drinking levels rose, showing that alcohol consumption could not solve the fundamental economic problems.
What was the Twelfth Five-Year Plan and what were its weaknesses?
The Twelfth Five-Year Plan (1996-90) focused on increasing investment to stimulate economic growth, especially in science and engineering.
The plan had several key weaknesses:
Investment was skewed toward construction projects, leading to overspending.
Soviet industry used outdated equipment, which led to low productivity.
The economy was slow to adopt new technology, and foreign technology imports drained foreign exchange.
Agricultural sector investment did not lead to productivity growth.
The focus was on quantity rather than quality, with products often being unusable.
Gorbachev’s acceleration policy did not address these fundamental economic weaknesses.
Gorbachev admitted in June 1986 that much of the state apparatus was resistant to real reform, saying, “Take Gosplan… What they want, they do.”
What were the obstacles to reform under Gorbachev?
Gorbachev’s reforms were hindered by the opposition from within the Party and state economic planning apparatus.
In an attempt to streamline the state apparatus, Gorbachev set up ‘superministries’ to reduce waste and duplication but faced resistance from those whose privileged positions the reforms threatened.
Military interests pushed for more investment in military technology, creating conflict with efforts to invest in civilian industries.
Between 1985 and 1986, the Soviet economy’s deficit rose from 2.4% of GDP to 6.2%.
The ongoing war in Afghanistan and increased defense spending due to the USA’s Strategic Defense Initiative (Star Wars) put additional pressure on the economy.
What was Gorbachev’s proposal for economic perestroika?
In January 1987, Gorbachev launched his economic perestroika (restructuring) proposal to address the economic problems.
The aim was to introduce market mechanisms and allow private enterprise to revitalize the economy.
The key reforms under perestroika were:
Joint ventures: Allowed foreign companies to establish businesses in the Soviet Union, with Moscow’s first McDonald’s opening in 1990.
Law on State Enterprises (June 1987): Allowed loosening of state controls on wages and prices, weakening Gosplan’s authority. Factories were allowed to produce what they wanted once state targets were met.
Legalization of co-operatives (1988): Small-scale private enterprises like cafes, restaurants, and small shops were allowed to set their own prices, contributing to a flourishing sector.
The term ‘co-operatives’ was used to appease more conservative elements within the Party, but it was a step toward a more market-based economy.
What was the impact of perestroika on food production and the economy?
Food production showed a small increase in its growth rate from 1% to 2% during 1986-87, but this was still inadequate to meet the growing needs of the population.
One-fifth of the Soviet Union’s foodstuffs were imported.
State interference remained prevalent: the state controlled the allocation of materials, and the devolution of power to managers was often undermined by state bureaucrats who preferred to maintain control to ensure targets were met.
What were the effects of the co-operatives on the economy?
Products, especially foodstuffs, were diverted from state shops (where prices were low) to co-operatives, which charged much higher prices.
This caused inflation and deprived state shops of supplies, severely affecting groups living on a fixed income, such as pensioners.
Co-operatives were able to shop around for a better price, leading to deals with wealthier city authorities, which left poorer cities without sufficient goods.
The co-operatives proved more productive than the state sector, attracting the attention of corrupt government officials who demanded bribes for permission to operate.
Criminal gangs, who had profited from the illegal alcohol trade under Gorbachev’s anti-alcohol campaign, exploited this opportunity to extort money from the co-operatives.
What were the social consequences of perestroika?
Uncertainty over supplies led to a wave of hoarding by the population, causing shops to be emptied of goods as they arrived.
Food rationing was introduced in some cities to alleviate the situation. In 1988, meat was rationed in 26 out of 55 regions of Russia.
The principle of electing managers led to a significant rise in wages:
Urban wages increased by 9% in 1988 and 13% in 1989.
What challenges did foreign companies face under Gorbachev’s reforms?
Foreign companies interested in investing in the USSR faced endless bureaucracy, slowing down the process.
By 1990, there were nearly 3,000 joint foreign ventures in the USSR, but most of these were small-scale and had little impact on the economy.
What were the effects of officials undermining the reforms?
In some cities, officials ignored or sabotaged the reforms.
In Leningrad, the city administration withdrew sausages from shops and warehouses and buried them, showing resistance to change.
How did the fall in oil prices affect the Soviet economy?
The fall in the price of oil had a significant impact, as the USSR had become increasingly reliant on oil exports for foreign exchange.
By 1984, oil and gas accounted for 54% of Soviet exports.
What were the long-term consequences of Gorbachev’s reforms on the economy?
The reforms weakened the Soviet system of state planning but provided little to replace it.
By the end of 1989, the Soviet economy was massively in debt and approaching crisis point.
Gorbachev’s promise of an improvement in consumer goods for the population had not been achieved.
Strikes increased, with coal miners in the Don Basin protesting over unpaid wages and food shortages.
The government responded by increasing wages, but this was a short-term measure that did little to address the problem of empty shops.
Gorbachev’s failure to improve the economy undermined his political power, setting the stage for the eventual collapse of the Soviet system.
What was the State Commission on Economic Reform’s recommendation?
In July 1989, the State Commission on Economic Reform issued a report that called for a radical move to a market-led economy.
The report split the Politburo:
Reformers wanted a quick implementation of the recommendations.
Ryzhkov and others advocated for a gradual transition.
In October 1989, Stanislav Shatalin, one of Gorbachev’s economic advisers, proposed the 500 Days Programme, advocating for a rapid shift to a market economy.
The 500 Days Programme was rejected by the Soviet government but accepted by the Russian Parliament.
The division between the central Party leadership and the national republics led to chaos, and by 1990-1991, Soviet output declined by one-fifth.
Critics coined the term catastroika to describe the economic catastrophe caused by Gorbachev’s reforms.
How do historians interpret Gorbachev’s economic reforms?
Western historians often view free-market economics as the best path to material growth, concluding that communism was inherently weak and its economic failure was inevitable.
Left-wing historians have a more positive view of Gorbachev’s reforms, arguing that Soviet economic weakness was not insurmountable. They suggest that many failing governments maintain power despite economic decline, and that economic failure alone would not have caused the USSR’s collapse.
Some historians highlight the unfavorable international climate Gorbachev faced:
The war in Afghanistan.
The fall in oil prices.
The US embargo on technology imports to the USSR.
The collapse of communist regimes in Eastern Europe in 1989.
Why did Gorbachev recognize the need to reform the Party?
The Party and state apparatus had grown huge and unmanageable under Brezhnev, resembling power blocs of vested interests that competed with each other.
This rivalry led to wastefulness, corruption, and nepotism.
Gorbachev also identified problems with the central planning apparatus in Moscow and its relations with the regional planning apparatus in the republics.
He recognized that streamlining the system would allow for the removal of officials who were against reform.
What role did glasnost play in the reform process?
Glasnost started as a method to revitalize the Communist Party and re-engage the population, but it soon turned into an open attack on the Party’s corrupt practices.
Key criticisms raised included:
Poor housing conditions.
Revelations about Stalin’s mass terror, the 1930s famine, and the Katyn Massacre.
Exposing the waste of human lives during the Soviet victory in WWII, undermining the myth of the Great Patriotic War.
Environmental issues, particularly the Aral Sea disaster caused by government irrigation schemes.
How did the Chernobyl disaster impact glasnost?
The Chernobyl nuclear accident in April 1986 exposed the Soviet Union’s weaknesses in governance.
Radioactive fallout spread over much of northern Europe, and the Soviet government failed to announce the accident until Scandinavian scientists detected unusually high levels of radioactivity.
The delayed response led to a delayed evacuation of affected populations, increasing human costs, including leukemia and birth deformities.
The disaster highlighted the poor management and outdated equipment at Soviet nuclear facilities, which were covered up by secrecy.
Gorbachev saw the Chernobyl affair as an urgent justification for glasnost.
How did glasnost impact the Soviet population politically?
By 1989, the Soviet population had become much more politicized due to glasnost.
Over 60,000 informal groups and clubs emerged, holding meetings, organizing demonstrations, and advocating for political reform.
Instead of increasing support for Gorbachev, glasnost led to a wave of criticism directed at the Party, much of it aimed at Gorbachev for his weakness in pursuing radical reform.
Many reformers resigned from the Communist Party, unwilling to defend the Party’s actions.
What were Gorbachev’s attempts to reform the Party structure?
Separation of Party and state was one of Gorbachev’s main goals, but it proved difficult due to the blurred lines between the two, particularly because of the nomenklatura system (which tied appointments and promotions to Party loyalty).
At the Nineteenth Party Conference in June 1988, Gorbachev sought to separate Party and state, but little was achieved in making officials choose one over the other.
In October 1988, Gorbachev became both President of the Soviet Union and General Secretary of the Party, mirroring the situation in republics, where First Secretaries also served as Chairman of the regional Soviet.
What was Gorbachev’s approach to shifting power from the Party to the Soviets?
Gorbachev attempted to allocate more financial resources to the Soviets to strengthen their role in the government.
He also introduced a five-year term for deputies of the Soviets, giving them greater job security.
How did Gorbachev streamline the Party and state?
The Central Committee was reduced from 20 departments to 9, and 6 new commissions were created.
In November 1985, Gorbachev created Superministries to coordinate economic planning.
For example, five ministries were merged to form one superministry for agriculture
What was the response to Gorbachev’s clampdown on corruption?
One prominent casualty was Yuri Churbanov, Brezhnev’s son-in-law, who was sentenced to 12 years in prison for corruption.
Attacks on corrupt Party officials were popular with the public but caused significant resentment within the Party.
Gorbachev experienced the difficulties of this approach firsthand when, in December 1986, Dinmukhamed Kunayev was removed from his position as First Secretary of the Party in Kazakhstan on grounds of corruption.
Kunayev was replaced by Gennady Kolbin, an ethnic Russian.
This led to riots in Kazakhstan by Kazakhs protesting Kunayev’s removal. Order was restored only after hundreds of protestors were killed.
What was Gorbachev’s attempt at democratisation, and what was its impact?
Democratisation aimed to involve more people in the Communist Party and political debate.
In early 1987, Gorbachev proposed the idea of secret ballots for multiple candidates.
In June 1987, there was a limited experiment with multiple candidates in elections for local Soviets.
In June 1988, Gorbachev announced that multi-candidate elections would extend to the national level, leading to the creation of the Congress of People’s Deputies.
The Congress was designed to provide an independent supervisory role over the government and was part of Gorbachev’s efforts to separate Party and state.
The Communist Party nominated 100 candidates for the 100 seats, but other organizations like trade unions and the Union of Writers allowed voters to choose from multiple candidates (up to 12 candidates in some seats).
The Communist Party controlled the nomination process, but the reforms still engaged the population in the political process.
The March 1989 elections for the Congress of People’s Deputies gave the Soviet public a taste of democracy, marking a significant shift in Soviet political life, although it was still far from Western democracy.
The reforms, although criticized as tinkering with the system, weakened the Communist Party’s power irretrievably.
What was the impact of Gorbachev’s failure to reform the Party?
Gorbachev became increasingly frustrated with his inability to change the mindset of conservative Party members.
He had hoped his reforms would increase political involvement and strengthen support for his economic reforms.
However, the failure of Party reforms led many reformers to support pluralism—the possibility of a multi-party system, where the Communist Party would have to earn its right to govern.
