Core ideas of conservativism

Question 1

Conservative view on human nature

Answer 1

The conservative view of human nature is largely defined by its response and opposition to rival ideologies, notably liberalism and socialism. Whereas these progessive ideologies take an upbeat view of human nature, asserting that humans have the capacity for endless achievement and improvement, conservatives are inclined to restrain such optimism by stressing human frailty and fallibility. Conservativism’s view of human nature has led to it becoming known as a philosophy of imperfection

Deny the possibility of a perfect, utopian society, comprising flawless and rational individuals: their view of human nature tends to be descriptive rather than prescriptive, highlighting humanity as it is rather than how it could or should be. Conservativism rejects the malleable view of human nature offered by socialism and the idea that humanity can be significantly remoulded given the right environment or society. For conservatives human nature is pretty much fixed and constant, and the job of politicians is to accommodate rather than alter this reality. The stress on human imperfection is much more nuanced than many imagine and compromises a number of interpretations from various conservative thinkers

Question 2

Explain the idea of human imperfection

Answer 2

Drawing upon the OT doctrine of original sin, refers to the timeless flaws of humanity - flaws which make any quest for a flawless society misguided and potentially disastrous

Question 3

Hobbes’ view of human nature

Answer 3

His view of the state of nature is a sharp contrast to liberal thinkers like Locke. Regarding human nature of ruthlessly selfish, calculating and competitive. Argued that without the restraints of formal authority, relations between humans would be marked by ‘envy, hatred and war’, leading to a life that was ‘nasty, brutish and short’

However, we should be wary of describing Hobbes as a quintessential conservative. He went onto argue in Leviathan that underpinning human nature was a cold rationality; this would eventually lead previously warring individuals to forge a contract, which would in turn lead to a formal state. By admitting the possibility of such rational calculations, and the concept of manking achieving satisfactory outcomes, Hobbes thereby placed himself closer to liberalism in explaining human nature, which is why Hobbes is usually seen as an example rather than a critic of enlightenment thinking

Question 4

Burke’s view on human nature

Answer 4

For this reason Burke has a much stronger claim than Hobbes for being the real father of conservativism. Burke’s Reflections of the Revolution in France criticised not just the recent events in France but the thrust of enlightenment thinking - including the notion that human nature was guided mainly by reason and dismissed any notion we could plan a near perfect society. Drawing upon on original sin he highlighted the ‘chasm between our desire and our achievement’ and thus stressed, custom, habit and experience as a signpost for how we should behave

Both Burke and Hobbes exhibited scepticism in their view of human nature - both ridiculed the idea that it was saintly or potentially faultless. However, their definitions of human imperfection were different. Burke did not think humans were brutally selfish as Hobbes did: fallible yes, terrible no. Burke thought humans were capable of kindness and altruism, wisdom even, so longer as their actions were rooted in history, tradition and the traditions of the Christian church - a possibility Hobbes did not consider. Burke did not share Hobbes’ view that human nature was ruthlessly individualistic. Burke argued human nature was naturally communal, with individuals gaining comfort and support from the small communities around them (something Burke termed ‘little platoons’)

Question 5

Michael Oakeshott’s view on human nature

Answer 5

Stated that conservativism was ‘more psychology than ideology’ , claiming it articuated ‘an instinctive preference for what is known, an innate fear of what is uncertain. He believed that life without law would not be nasty, brutish and short so much as noisy, foolish and flawed. Conceded human nature was ‘fallible and fragile’ yet was also ‘benign and benevolent’ when framed by routine, familiarity and religious principles

Question 6

Later conservative thinkers, notably those associated with the new right, modified this view…

Answer 6

Robert Nozick and Ayn Rand were keen to highlight human nature’s yearning for individual freedom, and its subsequent capacity for enterprise and innovation. However the new right and traditional conservatives agreed that even the most enterprising individuals were still (in Nozick’s words) ‘freedom loving pack animals’ who needed the periodic restraint of formal authority and deeply rooted communities. This recognition provides a key link between New Right politics in the 20th century and 17th century Hobbesian philosophy. Both Hobbes and the New Right took the view that human nature was be contained in order to provide some peace and stability in human affairs

Question 7

Explain the idea of localism in relation to the conservative view on society

Answer 7

Conservatives certainly acknowledge that society exists. Unlike some liberals, who see society as nothing more than a collection of atomistic individuals, conservatives see it as a collection of localised communities or ‘little platoons’. These communities provide their individuals with security, status and inspiration, while acting as a brake on the sort of selfish individualism extolled by classical liberals. One of Burke’s objections to the French Revolution was that it seemed to inaugurate a single, monolithic French society that would override local loyalties - a view reinforced by the French Republic’s creation of a highly centralised state

Question 8

Explain the idea of organicism in relation to the conservative view on society

Answer 8

For conservatives society is not something that can be contrived or created but rather something that emerges gradually, organically and therefore somewhat mysteriously. Here we see another illustration of conservative scepticism - this time in the respect of liberal style rationalism. Whereas liberals believe in the infinite possibility of planning and arrangement, based on the belief that mankind can determine its own fate, conservatives see the ‘reality’ of the unplanned organic society, proof that human life is subject complex forces beyond the scope of reason. Conservatives view society as being less like a machine, responsive to whichever levers are pulled by human hands, and more like a plant, growing in a way that can not be easily predicted

Question 9

Explain the idea of empiricism in relation to the conservative view on society

Answer 9

Because of its organic nature, conservatives tend to look at society in empirical terms

Question 10

Define empiricism

Answer 10

Indicates a preference for evidence over theory and tends to emphasise what is rather than what should be. This means they will deal with society’s issues in a practical, evidential, this is how it is fashion, with no clear view of how society may evolve and develop in years to come. The empirical view on society is a sharp contrast to the normative view taken by progressive ideologies like liberalism and socialism, which have principled views of how society should be and plans to bring this about. As Oakeshott observed, the conservative society is one that merely aims to ‘stay afloat’ in uncertain waters, rather than sail steady towards some specific destination which may ultimately prove illusory

Question 11

Define progressive

Answer 11

Linked to liberalism and socialism - denotes a belief that problems invariably have solutions and that the future must always be superior to the past and present - an assumption which conservatives are sceptical

Question 11

Define normative

Answer 11

Denoting how things should be in the future - a term conservatives disdain given their emphasis on the uncertainty of our situation

Question 12

Explain the idea of tradition in relation to the conservative view on society

Answer 12

The effectiveness of an empirical, conservative society rests heavily upon the store it sets by tradition. Customs and habits are used to provide security in an uncertain world, with history and experience shaping whatever changes become necessary. It is here that tradition dovetails with organicism. As Oakeshott observed…

‘Just as a plant’s new leaves are connected to, dependent on and explained by the plant’s roots and branches, so a society’s present direction stems from its past developments

As a result conservatives argue that change and reform, though inevitable, must be slow not drastic; respectful of and not contemptuous of the past

Question 13

Explain the idea of hierarchy in relation to the conservative view on society

Answer 13

While any liberal society would stress foundational equality, or the notion that all individuals are born equal and of equal worth, conservatives see society in a much less egalitarian way. For conservatives the imperfections of humanity lead seamlessly to inequalities within human nature. This leads to an unequal society where to quote Burke ‘the wiser, the stronger and more opulent establish a hierarchy of power and privilege. According to Burke such hierarchies are so natural that even the smallest of the ‘little platoon’ communities are likely to have a top down structure, with a minority exercising some authority over the majority

Conservatives are keen to stress that with power and authority comes responsibility. This compromise is known as paternalism or noblesse oblige, derives from the conservative principle that the relationship between society’s stronger and weaker elements is akin to the relationship between father and children, with the former have a natural and organic responsibility for the other

Question 14

Define hierarchy

Answer 14

Holds that equality of status and power is undesirable, that human affairs require leadership from a small number of individuals and that the majority should accept their judgements. Apologists claim that successful structures, social and political, tend to have an unequal distribution of power

Question 15

Explain the idea of paternalism/noblesse oblige

Answer 15

Refers to the fatherly obligations that a ruling class - the nobility - has to society as whole. Can take the form of hard of soft paternalism

Question 16

Explain soft paternalism

Answer 16

Power still rests with the elites but elite decisions will usually be preceded by listening carefully to what the non elites want, with a degree of consultation involved

Question 17

Explain hard paternalism

Answer 17

Involves the elites deciding what is best for the rest, irrespective of what the rest want

Question 18

Explain the idea of Judaeo-Christian morality in relation to the conservative view on society

Answer 18

Unlike liberalism, which stresses mans ability to use rationality to decide its own fate, conservativism is much more attached to religion, particularly OT Christianity, with its belief in original sin. As a result the conservative society often has an important role for the guidance offered by Judaeo-Christian morality, which includes a strong emphasis upon marriage, self contained families, and individuals being held responsible for their own actions (refute the socialist contention that dysfunctional individuals are the products of dysfunctional societies). Therefore in a typical conservative society, religious principles, such as the spiritual rewards for altruism and compassion will help bind individuals together and curb the imperfections that both conservativism and Christianity see as inherent to human nature

Question 19

Explain the idea of property in relation to the conservative view on society

Answer 19

Crucial to the conservative view of society and the basis for Burke’s idea of ‘little platoons’ is a respect for property. A stress on property is not a solely conservative idea, as liberals believe property to be a natural right that is at the root for their support for capitalism. For conservatives property has different attributes

The conservative view of property is closely tied to its support for tradition and continuity. Rather than being something acquired by autonomous individuals, property is something inherited by one generation to another, thus providing a degree of stability in the shaky imperfect world. Inherited property is seen as a tangible expression of Burke’s belief that the ideal society is a ‘partnership between those who are living, those who are dead and those who are yet to be born’

The ongoing practical maintenance of property could be seen as a metaphor for conservativisms view of the ongoing maintenance of society - an illustration of its core belief that we must change to conserve. Also a connection between property and a paternalistic society. This is because those who have property have a stake in existing society and if only to stave off revolution should pay attention to the needs of the less well off. property ownership provides a platform and incentive for property owners to exercise their duty of care towards others and thus maintain existing society

The New Right conservatives are even more zealous about property, wishing not just to preserve but to expand property ownership throughout society and thus creating a property owning democracy. For new right thinkers like Rand and Nozick, those who own property are better place to resist state led incursions upon their liberty and will be emboldened to justify the sort of unequal society conservatives defend

The New Right’s overall view of society is somewhat distinctive, in that it places particular emphasis upon individual liberty. However, in line with tradition conservative thinking, it concedes that individualism is best pursued in a society that still values hierarchy and traditional Judaeo-Christian values. In their view such traditional societies provide the security and discipline that individuals need to flourish

Question 20

Explain the idea of order and authority in relation to the conservative view on the state

Answer 20

Their view of the state’s purpose provides a sharp difference compared to socialism and liberalism. While these two see the state as serving progressive goals, conservatives see it as having more of a disciplinary function. The main goal of the conservative state is to provide order, security and authority

Like Hobbes conservative believe that without order there could be no liberty, and that there could be no order until the emergence of clear, undisputed laws backed by firm authority. All this connects to the fundamental conservative belief that the state precedes society and not vice versa as the liberals would have it and that liberal notions of natural rights are fanciful. As Hobbes insisted the feasability of individual rights is entirely dependent upon law and order - which only the state can provide

Question 21

Define authority

Answer 21

Denotes a recognised right for those with authority to make decisions others must accept. Among the three ideologies there is disagreement over how authority should be attained and for what purpose it should be exercised

Question 22

Explain the idea of organic origins in relation to the conservative view on the state

Answer 22

Although they have a Hobbesian view of the function of the state, the link between conservativism and Hobbes can be overdone. As an enlightenment thinker Hobbes was heavily committed to the notion of govt by consent and the notion of a state being rationally constructed by a contract between the govt and governed. By contrast conservatives are sceptical about states that arise momentously from formal rational discussion. Argue such states are likely to be normative rather than empirical, based on ideas rather than reality and are therefore likely to fail. Instead they prefer a state that emerges gradually, unpredictably and without fanfare, an organic and pragmatic response to society’s needs, for this reason they are less likely to support a codified constitution and are favouring UK style arrangements where unwritten constitutions have evolved organically in response to changing circumstances

Question 23

Explain the idea of a ruling class in relation to the conservative view on the state

Answer 23

The structure of a state for trad cons differs from that advocated by the other two Is. Much more confortable with an overtly hierarchical state than the progressives, reflecting the elitist society they also endorse. Trad con state implicity acknowledges the notion of a ruling class whose power will often be hereditory and aristocratic rather than democratic

Trad cons from Burke onwards were keen to state the benefits of a class that was born and trained to rule a state - mindful of its responsibilities to society as a whole. For this reason the trad con state would show empirical and pragmatic characteristics, legislating whenever there was evidence to show new laws were necessary and governing so as to ensure order and social cohesion. By such flexible means, the conservative state would avert social upheaval and revolution while maintaining traditonal patterns of wealth and power in society

Question 24

Explain the idea of the nation state in relation to the conservative view on the state

Answer 24

From mid 19th- mid 20th century, cons tended to emphasise a state based on nationhood, For all cons, the nation became a mega community, one that enfolded all classes and therefore provided a natural basis for the state. For continental conservatives such as those in Italy and Germany, there remains a powerful sense that the nation preceded the state, that the two are distinct and that you can separate the two

British and American conservatives see the nation and state as being much more intertwined, with the state serving to define much of the nation itself - hence the importance of constitutions, presidents and monarchs as expressions of British and American identity. This reverance for the nation state might explain Brexit. They see diminunation of the nation state as diminunation of the nation itself

For New Right conservatives the attitude of the state seems paradoxical: to strengthen the nation state by rolling back its frontiers. yet for New Right thinkers like Nozick and Rand the paradox is easily explained: if the nation state is burdened by nationalised industries and welfare states then it is harder to focus on the true objective of order and security. As Rand observed, ‘when the state becomes flabby, it also becomes feeble’. For New Right cons the aim is to streamline the state’s functions and make it ‘leaner and fitter’ in the process