The rest of conservatism

Question 1

WWhat kind of politics was it a reaction to

Answer 1

Enlightenment politics

Question 2

How did the French Revolution give birth the it

Answer 2

Beforehand it had seem antiquated to question the enlightenment ideas of progress, equality and rationalism

By 1792 it was clear that revolutionary change and the violent imposition of enlightenment ideas could have horrific consequences.

These events made it possible to oppose enlightenment principles without seeming reactionary, to criticise progress without denying the enlightenment, and to advocate reform over revolution.

Question 3

What was Hobbes’ most famous work

Answer 3

Leviathan (1651)

Question 4

Explain Hobbes’ view of human nature

Answer 4

Sceptical, argued it was needy and vulnerable and therefore likely to commit destructive acts. He said that prior to the creation of the state there was no cooperation or voluntary agreements between individuals and therefore none of the natural rights later cited by liberals. The state of nature was a place of scarce resources where human nature was governed by ruthless self interest. Human nature was shaped by the ruthless desire for the acquisition of goods, an immovable trust of others and constant fear of violent death. Life in this state of nature would be ‘solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short’

Question 5

What did Hobbes caused this chaos in the state of nature

Answer 5

Thought it could be explained by absence of any formal authority which could enforce and unquestioned code of right and wrong. He said that man in the state of nature was able to form his own subjective standards of morality. He said that since these standards of morality would vary from person to person this would only lead to uncertainty and war

Question 6

How did Hobbes think that chaos in the state of nature could be solved

Answer 6

Because he thought we were rational he thought we would eventually realise that the state of nature was inimical to self interest and agree to a contract. Under this contract we would render to a state the right to make laws by which all were restrained, allowing an order and security that the state of nature does not. This would eventually lead to a society where some individuals could enjoy some security and progress

Question 7

What kind of state did Hobbes advocate for

Answer 7

He said for the state to fulfil its function it would have to be autocratic. Hobbes said that if power were dispersed then conflicts in the state of nature would be replicated

Thought the principle reason for the state was the creation of order and security: that without such a state there could be no civil society and that for the state to be effective it would have to be autocratic, intiminating and forbidding

Question 8

Why is it unsurprising that conservatives support capitalism

Answer 8

Because it aligns with their support for inequality and hierarchy

Question 9

Which economist was Burke an ally of

Answer 9

Adam Smith

Question 10

Define Thatcherism

Answer 10

Essentially a synonym for the New Right in the UK. Refers to the neo liberal and neo conservative policies carried out by the Thatcher govts

Question 11

Give some examples of neo liberal things Thatcher did

Answer 11

Privatisation

Tax cuts

Question 12

Give some examples of neo conservative things Thatcher did

Answer 12

Strengthened police powers

Curbing immigration

Tax breaks for traditional families

Question 13

Explain conservatism’s mixed attitude towards capitalism

Answer 13

Aligns with their support for hierarchy and inequality.

Conservatives want order, stability and continuity, but free market capitalism promotes risk, innovation and iconoclasm. This is frightening for conservatives given their sceptical view of human nature and fear that radical change leads to bad things

Trad cons have therefore sometimes been called ‘reluctant supporters’. One the one hand they recognise that an assault on capitalism is an assault on property, inequality, hierarchy and the status quo. However, they are also sceptical of the laissez faire claim that markets work best when left alone completely. Supporting laissez faire requires an optimism that is not in line with conservative pessimism and scepticism

Trad cons have tried to solve this by supporting a more moderate form of capitalism in which free markets are tempered by state intervention. Under this model, sometimes known as protectionism, society and economy will be ensured against the vagaries of market forces by state imposed tariffs and duties. This protection of national producers and consumers is also consistent with trad con idea of one nation, offsetting the globalising effects of free market capitalism. Trad cons in the 20th century were also drawn to Keynesianism, where the state managed market forces in the interests of full employment

Influenced by neo liberal economists like von Hayek and Friedman, New Right conservatives have a more sympathetic view of free market economies

New Right economics still complements trad con in many ways. The New Right thinks that by disengaging from economic management the state can focus on its true Hobbesian purpose of providing order and security. The New Right believes that a free market economy is a prosperous economy. This might promote popular capitalism and destroy socialism, as well as funding greater state spending on the police, army and other agencies vital to the defence of a conservative society

Question 14

What are the two strands of conservatism covered

Answer 14

Trad and New Right

Question 15

Which party was Burke an MP for

Answer 15

The Whigs

Question 16

What radical 18th century causes did Burke actually champion

Answer 16

American Revolution after 1776

Defended Irish tenants in clashes against extortionate landlords

Demanded the impeachment of the Governor General of Bengal for alleged cruelty towards the Hindustanis

Advocate of Smith’s call for free trade

Question 17

When was reflections on the revolution in france published

Answer 17

1790

Question 18

Which tenets of conservative thought did Burke define in Reflections on the Revolution in France

Answer 18

Human imperfection, empiricism, organicism, tradition, aristocracy and localism

Question 19

Explain Burke’s ideas on human imperfection

Answer 19

Stressed mankind’s fallibility and tendency to fail more than succeed. Therefore denounced the idealistic society promoted by the French Revolution, claiming it was based on a utopian and thus unrealistic view of human nature

Question 20

Explain Burke’s attitude to change and reform

Answer 20

Said that while change was necessary to conserve, change should happen on the basis of empiricism and tradition rather than theory and idealism. Burke criticised the French Rev for discarding what was known in favour of an entirely new society based on philosophical abstractions

Question 21

Explains Burke’s idea that society is closer to a plant than a machine

Answer 21

He said both has a certain dynamism that put them beyond reason and planning. Said change must therefore be cautious and organic and denounced the French Revolution for discarding history and tradition

Question 22

Why was Burke critical of the French Revolution’s emphasis on equality

Answer 22

Said that within all organic societies a ruling class was inevitable and desirable.

Question 23

What did Burke think the ruling class had an obligation to do

Answer 23

Govern in the interests of all. He thought that the failure of the French aristocracy to do this had led to the French Revolution

Question 24

Why was Burke concerned about the highly centralised structures of the new French state

Answer 24

Instead wanted a society of little platoons: a multitude of small, diverse and largely autonomous communities which would acknowledge nurture and prune the crooked timber of humanity

Question 25

Make the case that conservatism is a ruling class ideology

Answer 25

Claim made by Webb and Crosland

Burke attacked the egalitarianism of the French Revolution while defending aristocracy

Always defend property, privilege and inequality

Paternalism is merely an attempt to make inequality and elitism palatable to the majority

The stress of tradition and piecemeal change conspires to prevent radical change, which inherently threatens ruling class interests

Question 26

Make the case that conservatism is not a ruling class ideology

Answer 26

The prime purpose of the conservative state is the maintenance of order, which appeals to all sections of society.

Its love of custom, habit and familiarity echoes with all sections of society

Trad cons have consistently promoted the interests of the poor in order to ensure the maintenance of one nation

Their wish to avoid revolution is altruistic, as during periods of upheaval it is often societies poorest who suffer most

New Right conservatism is meritocratic rather than aristocratic identifying with ambitious and talented individuals from all backgrounds

Question 27

What have critics suggested really motivated Reflections on the Revolution in France

Answer 27

Merely provided a sophisticated justification for existing society, one in which he and other members of the ruling class had a vested interest

Question 28

Give some examples of Tory PMs who had a conservative approach

Answer 28

Pitt, Peel and Canning. All displayed a reverence for order and property, opposed revolutionary change, extolled tradition, endorsed the notion of localism, insisted that society and state emerged organically, praised empiricism over abstraction and defended paternalistic, aristocratic rule

Question 29

What conservative themes were the tory party linked to

Answer 29

Authority, tradition, hierarchy and religion

Question 30

How was Canning influenced by Burke’s idea of change to conserve

Answer 30

Supported CE and prepared legislation that would have allowed Catholics to participate in parliament (claiming that though emancipation carries dangers, civil strife carries even greater dangers) Canning also supported calls for the abolition of slavery and various demands from various Latin American countries for independence

Question 31

How was Peel a conservative

Answer 31

Offered another example of changing to conserve, seeking to harness the interests of the new business and merchant classes to Britain’s constitution and society. He and other conservatives therefore supported the GRA, ensuring parliamentary representation for the new industrial towns. His reasoning was that if the interests of the rich were not harnessed to the existing political and social structure then there was a danger that those interest would be harnessed to property less forces with no vested interests in evolving the status quo

Also displayed the conservative belief in order and authority. Established the Metropolitan Police Force as Home Secretary (1828-30), leading to the creation of similar forces throughout Britain. His assertion that without security there can be no liberty updates Hobbes’ justification for the state and strengthened the conservative association with order and authority

Question 32

Give some examples of conservative politicians who were important in developing the idea of one nation

Answer 32

Disraeli and Bismarck

Question 33

Define one nation conservatism

Answer 33

Dating from the 1870s, denotes the belief that conservatives should prioritise national unity by attending to the condition of society’s poorest. Been used by conservatives to justify greater state intervention in society and economy, and thus higher levels of public spending and taxation

Question 34

Explain how Disraeli and Bismarck developed one nation conservatism

Answer 34

Sensing that socialism and its stress on class conflict was a threat to stability and tradition, they understood that the conservative case for orderly change would have to be refined. Aware that in order to ensure social cohesion and orderly change, new themes were needed to offset class consiousness

The importance of the nation then emerged. Ironic because until then nationalism had been associated with anti imperialism and anti monarchism

They understood the conservative potential of nationalism. They embraced class differences - but in a way that created unity rather than rupture. Argued that all classes were part of the same national family and that revolutionary politics represented an attack against the nation itself. The nation state is something all classes have an interest in defending and therefore everyone has an interest in defending the status quo

Scorned the idea of workers in one nation and another nation being linked (Marx). Instead they updates Burke’s idea of a natural affinity between the rich and the poor arguing that the aristocracy had a paternalistic duty to ‘elevate the condition of the people’ (Disraeli). They said once this obligation was recognised by all classes, social and political progress could be achieved harmoniously without the horrors of class war and revolution. ‘The palace is not safe when the cottage is not happy’

Neither advocate mere philanthropy from the wealthy. Endorsed state sponsored social reforms, something that never would have occured to previous conservatives, One nation conservatism on the late 19th century thus became associated with legislation that tempered the effects of laissez faire capitalism on the behalf of the working class.

In England this resulted in things like 1874 Factory Act and the 1875 Artisans Dwelling Act, restricting the freedom of factory owners and landlords, while Bismarck created what some historians regard as the first welfare state, providing Germans with state backed insurance against sickness, accident and destitution in old age.

Bismarck also imposed tariffs and import controls

Question 35

Why would it be wrong to see fascism as a kind of conservatism

Answer 35

Because of its belief in radical and immediate change, contempt for traditional institutions and local communities and glorification of dictatorship

Question 36

The emergence of which to ideologies in the early 20th century impacted conservatism

Answer 36

Socialism and fascism

Question 37

Describe how conservatism developed again in the early to mid 20th century

Answer 37

The 1918 franchise extension created more working class voters and accelerated the growth of Labour, who were committed to common ownership, with some conservatives beginning to worry that socialism was seemingly inevitable

With this in mind they sought to temper the effects of capitalism in order to sustain a society based on property ownership and inequality. Inter war conservatives like Harold Macmillan spoke of a middle way between conservatism and socialism, that would address economic inequalities while respecting property rights, cultural tradition, national identity etc

As early as the 1930s it was clear that conservatives were willing to permit a higher degree of state intervention in order to protect privilege and stifle socialism. Between 1935-7, conservative politicians supporting public health, housing and factory acts, all of which checked market forces and encouraged social cohesion in the name of one nation

After 1945 conservatism took another step towards accepting big govt. Across western Europe conservatives yielded to the ideas of democratic socialists and modern liberals and therefore embraced keynesianism, mixed economies and welfare states involving state ownership of industries and services

This was opportunistic and pragmatic. Conservatives needed to win elections to give effect to their views, and elections were dominated by working class, propertyless voters

Post wars cons said they were evolving rather than forgetting their previous positions

Question 38

What did Crosland say about conservatives

Answer 38

They conserve no principles, simply go along with whatever situation they inherit, in the interests of winning office and stemming the tides of change

Question 39

What did Quentin Hogg say about conservatism in The Case For Conservatism (1948)

Answer 39

‘Conservatism, unlike liberals, has always recognised that unchecked laissez faire can be destructive as well as creative’

Question 40

What did RA Butler say about conservatism in The Art of the Possible (1971)

Answer 40

Said their support for state welfare and Keynesianism were just updates versions of their support for paternalism and one nation

Question 41

Define supranationalism

Answer 41

Refers to a state whose authority cuts across national boundaries. British and American conservatives tend to dislike, seeing it as a threat to one nation and the traditional nation state. Post war continental conservatives like the Christian Democrats accept it as a good antidote to fascism’s legacy of ultra nationalism

Question 42

Explain Christian Democracy

Answer 42

Post war traditional conservatism developed differently in Europe compared to the UK. The main reason was because these nations felt the effect of fascism more.

Question 43

Give some examples of traditional conservatives

Answer 43

West Germany’s Konrad Adenauer

France’s Robert Schuman

Italy’s Luigi Sturzo

Question 44

Describe the overlaps between Christian democracy and post war traditional conservatism in the UK

Answer 44

Same belief in Judaeo-Christian morality as a force for binding society together

Same belief in hierarchy and authority (underlined by their support for the RCC)

Same commitment to social conservatism, marriage and traditional family life, and the same scepticism towards socially liberal causes like abortion and sexual equality

Same scepticism towards laissez faire. Christian democracy emphasises the ‘social market’ a form of capitalism that draws on the Catholic principles of obligation and communal duty, echoing Disraeli’s paternalistic conservatism

Same acceptance of an enlarged state, also accepted Keynesianism, high public spending and an expansive welfare state

Question 45

What makes Christian Democracy distinct

Answer 45

Its attitude towards the nation state. In places like Germany, Italy and Spain the experience of fascism made politicians wary of nationalism and patriotism.

This made them accepting of supranationalism, an idea hinted at by Schuman’s plan for limited economic integration in the 1950s which would later be embodied by the EEC and EU. The fact that the RCC is supranational made them more accepting too

British conservatives have been suspicious that the real aim of this supranationalism is to eliminate the idea of ‘the nation’ within conservative philosophy and instead make ‘the region’ the main form of conservative identity (as it now is for many German and Italian conservatives)

Question 46

What does British conservative philosopher Roger Scruton call Christian Democracy

Answer 46

No nation conservatism

Question 47

What is Oakeshott’s key text

Answer 47

On Being Conservative (1962)

Question 48

What was Oakeshott’s main arguement in On Being Conservative

Answer 48

That a ‘philosophy of imperfection’ did not need to be a ‘philosophy of pessimism’

Question 49

Explain Oakeshott’s view on human imperfection

Answer 49

He said we were ‘fallible but not terrible’ and ‘imperfect but not immoral’. Though incapable of the ‘perfect’ societies promoted by other ideologies, humanity was still able to secure ‘both pleasure and improvement through the humdrum business of everyday life’

Question 50

How did Oakeshott try and prove that conservativism was more optimistic than the other core ideologies

Answer 50

He said that these ideologies and their clear view of how society should be produced impatience, intolerance and frustration. Oakeshott claimed that because conservatives were reconciled to human imperfection, they have a greater appreciation of the pleasures that already exist in life. He said conservatives prefer ‘the familiar to the unknown, the actual to the possible, the convenient to the perfect, present laughter to utopian bliss’

Question 51

Explain Oakeshott’s preference for empricism over normative ideas

Answer 51

He said normative politics involves ‘simplistic visions that overlook the complexity of reality’, affirmed the benefits of a pragmatic and empirical approach. Argued it was through experience, trial and error, rather than abstract philosophy, that wisdom was achieved. Oakeshott remarked ‘in a kitchen, cooks books are only useful after the experience of preparing a meal’

Question 52

Explain Oakeshott’s view on the role of the state

Answer 52

In his final work The Politics of Faith and The Politics of Scepticism, he argued that the state existed to ‘prevent the bad rather than create the good’ restating the idea the best things in life emerge from routine, apolitical activity. In other words, the state should be a civil association rather than an enterprise association, it should help society get along rather than push it in a certain direction

Said that in our lives ‘we all sail a boundless sea with no appointed destination’ and that the job of govt is to reflect this by ‘keeping the ship afloat at all costs, using experience to negotiate every storm, stoicism to accept necessary changes of direction, and not fixating on a port that may not exist

Question 53

Why do New Right conservatives criticise Oakeshott

Answer 53

Say he it too fatalistic and underestimates our ability to shape our circumstances. Nozick said the ‘Oakeshott mentality’ was ‘lazy’and had allowed socialist ideas to advance after 1945

Question 54

Make the case the conservatism is merely the politics of pragmatism

Answer 54

Burke attacked abstract philosophy, claiming it ignored human imperfection

Advocate an empirical rather than normative approach

Trad cons pride themselves on flexibility, which has helped them endure centuries of dramatic change

Shown by the different policies adopted by different conservatives at different times. For example, Peel supported laissez faire, while Macmillan supported Keynesianism

Oakeshott said conservatism is a short term, getting by approach to politics: does not have the long term objectives on society and economy like the other core ideologies

Question 55

Make the case that conservatism is not merely the politics of pragmatism

Answer 55

Trad con is not philosophically neutral and is instead based on philosophically contentious assertions like slow change being preferable to radical change and that vision and principle are inferior to evidence and tradition

Does not merely reject revolution as a method of change; does so to protect a society based on principles such as hierarchy, inequality and private property. Socialists therefore see socialism as a ruling class ideology, a changing set of biased policies, reflecting the evolving tactics of elites determined to preserve their privilege

Oakeshott said conservatism is psychology rather than ideology. Cons may therefore reject radical change if it conflicts with their instincts and emotions

New Right con draws on neo liberal and libertarian principles and politicians like Thatcher describe themselves as ‘conviction politicians’

Question 56

Who did post war European and British cons support Keynesianism

Answer 56

Their support for capitalism was tempered by a fear that market forces could generate gross inequalities that would outrage the majority of working class voters

Question 57

Explain how post war US cons had a different attitude to capitalism

Answer 57

Placed more emphasis on individual freedom, laissez faire capitalism, private property and minimal govt, because theyse values reflected conservative traditions

Many of these traditions were liberal, stemming from the individualist ideas of the FF and Constitution that was influenced by John Locke. These values were then blended with more obviously conservative ideas, such as traditional Christian morality, a respect for marriage and family life, intense patriotism and a belief in a stong (albeit) limited govt

American conservatism was always a blend of classical liberalism and social conservatism. From the 1970s, European conservatives became convinced they should adopt this

Question 58

Describe the crisis of traditional conservatism that occured that allowed the New Right to come to prominence

Answer 58

Crisis in states like the UK in the 1970s. Characterised by spiralling inflation, mounting unemployment, unsustainable welfare spending, increased crime rates, moral laxity and a growing sense of an ungovernable society due to TU militancy

The New Right thought this crisis represented an indictment of traditional conservatism. Post war trad cons like Macmillan, Hogg and Butler endorded the post war keynesian consensus. NR cons said trad cons were therefore complicit in a rapidly declining economy, a bloated welfare state, a permissive society and an increasingly feeble country lacking in moral and formal authority and struggling to resist socialism. A new interpretation of conservatism seemed to be required

In Europe this reinterpretation was resisted and cons remained committed to Christian Democracy. Cons in the UK and US much more willing to adapt

Question 59

Make the case that conservatism is compatible with capitalism

Answer 59

Based on private property, which cons support

Generates inequality, which cons defend as organic

Been at the heart of economic activity for several centuries and therefore squares with the support for tradition

Provides the ruling class with wealth that can be used paternalistically

NR cons want to extend private property and market forces in the name of greater individual freedom

Question 60

Make the case that capitalism is not compatible with conservatism

Answer 60

It is economic liberalism - focuses on individuals rather than communities

Creates economic and social tensions that threaten one nation

It is dynamic and volatile, threatening stability and continuity

Tends towards globalisation, undermining national identity

Promotes meritocracy and undermines aristocracy

Question 61

What is neo liberalism

Answer 61

Associated with Freidrich von Hayek who 1944 thesis The Road to Serfdom (1944) is regarded as the bible of neo liberal thinking. His ideas were reinfoced by Friedman in the US and the Adam Smith Institute in the UK. Chimes with the libertarian philosophy of Nozick and Rand.

Want to extend individual freedom by rolling back the frontiers of the state in order to create a free market economy. Nozick and Rand thought these measures would promote freedom and lead to the return of economic growth and a vibrant, prosperous society

Question 62

What kind of things do neo liberals want to see

Answer 62

Drastic reduction in tax

Tighter control of govt spending along the monetarist lines promoted by Friedman

End to dependency culture and expensive welfare states

Deregulation and privatisation

Curbing TU powers

Question 63

Which thinkers are associated with neo conservatism

Answer 63

American scholars like Irving Kristol and British philosophers like Roger Scruton

Question 64

What is neo conservatism

Answer 64

Whereas neo liberalism was concerned with the salvation of individual liberty, neo conservatives wanted to restore authority, national identity and Judaeo-Christian values

Question 65

List some neo conservative aims

Answer 65

Tougher law and order, with more police powers and stiffer sentences

More robust national defence, with a less conciliatory approach to enemies (USSR at the time)

Less tolerant on immigration because it is a threat to national identity

Anti permissive social policies on areas like homosexuality and abortion and the promotion of traditional family structures through the benefit and tax system

Question 66

Define anti permissive

Answer 66

Seeks to reverse the social liberalism that has occured since the 1960s. Critical view of things like abortion, divorce and homosexuality

Question 67

What was Rand’s defining work

Answer 67

The novel Atlas Shrugged (1957)

Question 68

What did Rand argue in Atlas Shrugged

Answer 68

That is was talented individuals rather than ambitious govt that created successful societies. Suggested that without the energy of these individuals society would quickly wither, no matter how much the govt did

Question 69

What did Rand argue in philosophical works like The Virtue of Selfishness (1964)

Answer 69

She explained her philosophical system of objectivism, with its core belief being we should be guided by ‘rational self fulfilment’

Question 70

Explain Rand’s idea of atomism

Answer 70

The idea that society is defined by millions of autonomous individuals , each separately seeking self fulfilment and self realisation. She provided a philosophical justification for the idea that society did not exist in any form, and was just a loose connection of individuals

Question 71

How did Rand become associated with the NR

Answer 71

Linked to NR support for laissez faire and support for negative liberty, providing a philosophical justification for ideas relating to rolling back the frontiers of the state

Question 72

Explain Rand’s self proclaimed libetarianism

Answer 72

Defended not just free markets but also an individuals right to choose in areas like homosexuality and abortion. Firmly rejecting any suggestion of anarchism, claiming both economic and cultural laissez faire needed the parameters of a small state

Question 73

How did Rand strengthen her connection to conservatism later in her career

Answer 73

She said that liberty was impossible without the order and security which only a state could provide and supported ultra conservative presidential candidate Barry Goldwater in 1964

‘The small state is the strong state’

Question 74

Define atomism

Answer 74

Relates to the view that we seek autonomy and space, leading to only a vague sense of society. Conservatives reject this view by suggesting that we are closely tied to our community, but NR conservatives are much more atomistic

Question 75

When did Nozick emerge as a key new right thinker

Answer 75

1970s

Question 76

What was Nozick’s key work

Answer 76

Anarchy, State and Utopia (1974)

Question 77

How did Nozick develop the ideas raised by von Hayek

Answer 77

Said the growth of govt was the biggest contemporary threat to individual freedom. Nozick thought the growth of welfare states in western europe had fostered dependency culture

Question 78

Explain Nozick’s libertarianism

Answer 78

Suggests both cultural and economic laissez faire and is therefore tolerant of a permissive society and takes a relaxed view on things like divorce, abortion and homosexuality

Question 79

What kind of state did Nozick advocate for

Answer 79

A minarchist state - one that mainly involving outsourcing public services to private companies

Question 80

How does Nozick’s idea of a minarchist state link to his views on human nature

Answer 80

Very different conception of human nature to Burke and Hobbes. Some suggest he has more in common with anarchism than conservatism. His idea that tax for the most part is theft indicates his upbeat view that humans have self ownership - that they are the sole author of their talents and abilities and should be left alone to realise them without the intervention of govt.

Question 81

Why is Nozick considered to be a conservative

Answer 81

Although he believed that society predates the state, his view of human nature is not wholly positive. He thought that while dishonesty, theft and violence were not the main characteristics of humans, the preservation of life, liberty and property could not be taken for granted without some formal authority imposing laws: a vital concession to Hobbesian ideas

The purpose of his small state was not just to facilitate raw individualism and free market capitalism. He also thought that minarchist state would allow a number of self sufficient communities to emerge. These societies would be free to practise their own moral codes and values which could even be socialist or anti Christian. Represents an update to Burke’s idea of little platoons

Question 82

What did conservative commentator Ian Gilmour say about the NR in Inside Right (1977)

Answer 82

Said that it was a betrayal of traditional conservative principles

Question 83

What did Anthony Quinton say about the NR in The Politics of Imperfection (1978)

Answer 83

Said that because it combines neo liberalism and neo conservatism it enfolds a series of fundamental contradictions

Question 84

Give some examples of NR contradictions

Answer 84

While neo liberals want to roll back the frontiers of the state neo conservatives wish to roll the state forward

While neo liberals want to advance individual liberty, neo conservatives are prepared to restrict it

While neo liberals are relaxed about immigration, neo conservatives are much more wary

While neo liberals want to minimise govt spending, neo conservatives are prepared to spend more to increase the nation’s profile

Question 85

Make the case that the NR is a blend rather than a mismatch and neo liberals and neo conservatism complement rather than contradict each other

Answer 85

Irving Kristol said a NR conservative was ‘a liberal mugged by reality’. Meant that liberals and their optimistic view of human nature fail to anticipate the tensions arising from free market capitalism where inequality flourishes. Therefore to contain such tensions they advocate for a strong authoritarian state to maintain order and protect private property

To achieve the low taxation they require liberals would have to reduce welfare spending. For this to be viable there has to be other sources of support for those blamelessly in need. Neo conservatism therefore can bring in the restoration of traditional morality and an end to the permissive society should lead to the restoration of supportive families and altruistic voluntary communities, while reviving a sense of individual responsibility. All this will ‘privatise’ compassion and social security and thus weaken the state’s obligations

Neo cons wish to strengthen the state by reinforcing the police, security services and armed services. All this requires extra state funding. Neo liberals say this will be easier to achieve if spending in other areas is decreased, following things like privatisation and welfare cuts. Therefore the neo liberal desire to roll back the frontiers of the state in terms of welfare finance the more statist objectives of neo conservatism

Question 86

Summarise Hobbes’ on human nature

Answer 86

Cynical, individuals are selfish, driven by a restless and ruthless desire for supremacy and security

Question 87

Summarise Hobbes’ on the state

Answer 87

The state arises contractually from individuals who seek order and security. The state must be awesome and autocratic to fulfil this function

Question 88

Summarise Hobbes’ on society

Answer 88

There can be no society until the creation of the state brings order and authority. Life is nasty, brutish and short until then

Question 89

Summarise Hobbes’ on the economy

Answer 89

Constructive and enduring economic activity is impossible without a state ensuring order and security

Question 90

Summarise Burke on human nature

Answer 90

Sceptical of the crooked timber of humanity which is marked by a gap between aspiration and achievment. We may conceive of perfection but we are unable to achieve it

Question 91

Summarise Burke on the state

Answer 91

Arises organically and should be organic and should be driven by an aristocratic, hereditary elite reared to rule in the interests of all

Question 92

Summarise Burke on society

Answer 92

Society is organic and multi faceted, comprising a host of small organised little platoons

Question 93

Summarise Burke on the economy

Answer 93

Trade should involve organic free markets and laissez faire capitalism

Question 94

Summarise Oakeshott on human nature

Answer 94

Modest - humanity is at its best when it is free from grand designs and focused on the routines of everyday life

Question 95

Summarise Oakeshott on the state

Answer 95

Should be guided by traditional and practical concerns. Pragma not dogma

Question 96

Summarise Oakeshott on society

Answer 96

Localised communties are essential to the survival of society, especially when guided by short term requirements rather than abstract ideas

Question 97

Summarise Oakeshott on the economy

Answer 97

Free markets are volatile and unpredictable and may require pragmatic moderation from the state

Question 98

Summarise Rand on human nature

Answer 98

Objectivist - we are, and ought to be, guided by self interest and the pursuit of self fulfilment

Question 99

Summarise Rand on the state

Answer 99

The state should confine itself to law, order and security. Any attempt to promote positive liberty via further state intervention should be resisted

Question 100

Summarise Rand on society

Answer 100

Atomistic in so far as it exists at all: the sum of individuals. Any attempt to restrict individuals in the name of society should be restricted

Question 101

Summarise Rand on economy

Answer 101

Free market capitalism is an expression objectivist individualism and should not be hindered by the state

Question 102

Summarise Nozick on human nature

Answer 102

Egotistical: individuals are driven by a quest for self ownership, allowing them to realise their potential

Question 103

Summarise Nozick on the state

Answer 103

The minarchist state should merely outsource, renew and reallocate contracts to private companies providing public services

Question 104

Summarise Nozick on society

Answer 104

Should be geared towards individual self fulfilment. This may lead to lots of small variable communities reflecting their members diverse tastes and philosophies

Question 105

Summarise Nozick on the economy

Answer 105

The minarchist should detach itself from a privatised and deregulated economy, merely arbitrating disputes between private economic organisations

Question 106

Conservative tensions over human nature…

Answer 106

Trad cons like Burke and Oakeshott are sceptical, drawing attention to the gap between aspiration and achievement, while warning against the grand utopian schemes of progressive ideologies. The horrors of the French and Russian Revolutions are not tragic accidents, they arose from a misreading and overestimation of human potential. NR thinkers take a more optimistic view, emphasising the potential or individuals with initiative and ability. Nozick and Rand take an especially positive view of what individuals can achieve in the economic sphere, arguing that the key to unlocking human potential lies in fostering a pro capitalist environment where individual energies are unleashed

Question 107

Conservative tensions over society

Answer 107

Trad cons see society as a collection of little platoons, overseen by a hierarchical structure in which paternalistic elites exercise aristocratic power in the interests of the majority. These communties are considered organic in the sense that they emerge in a natural, unplanned way and place great store in tradition and continuity. NR cons are doubtful about the existence of society, drawing on the libertarian belief that society is just a collection of atomised individuals seeking self determination. More sceptical about paternalism, preferring a society who have achieved rather than inherited. Prefer meritocracy to aristocracy

Question 108

Conservative tensions over the state…

Answer 108

Trad cons like Burke defend a state where political power is wielded by those who are born to rule. Trad cons believe the best states will have a natural ruling class, reared according to the principles of duty and sacrifice, and instilled with a sense of responsibility towards the governed. Trad cons are pragmatic about the extent of the state and prepared to enlarge it in the name of social stability and one nation. By contrast, NR cons want to roll back the frontiers of the state (apart from in certain areas like security and defence) so as to advance individual freedom and end dependency culture. Hostile the aristocratic rule - fear that the ruling classes have too much of a stake in the status quo and are therefore reluctant to admit the radical change that needs to be carried out by NR govts

Question 109

Conservative tensions over the economy

Answer 109

Trad cons, while keen to defend an economy based on private ownership, they are sceptical about free market capitalism, fearful that its dynamic effects exascerbate inequality, threaten one nation and fuel support for socialism. As capitalism becomes more globalised, trad cons fear that market forces promote a more cosmopolitan society that erodes national identity and national culture. Trad cons have therefore been willing to allow state intervention through keynesianism higher tax and higher welfare spending

NR cons advocate free market economies where state functions are privatised and deregulated, and where levels of tax and state spending are significantly reduced