The rest of liberalism Flashcards
1
Q
Why can we conclude that it is the most influential ideology
A
The UN say that 2/3 of states across the globe can be classed as liberal democracies - a seven fold increase since 1945
2
Q
How does liberalism have its roots in the reformation
A
Martin Luther argued that individuals seeking to communicate with God and understand his commands no longer need to rely on priests, popes and intermediaries. With the advent of the printing press and wider literacy, Luther argued Christianity could now assume a more individualistic character, with each man and woman taking on private prayers and undertaking God’s work in their own way. The Enlightenment then looked to extend these ideas to the political and secular sphere
3
Q
What political event did the start of the enlightenment coincide with
A
The English Civil War and the overthrow of Charles I
4
Q
Locke’s ideas seem normal today but how would they have been seen at the time
A
Revolutionary
5
Q
What is mechanistic theory
A
Linked to the writings of Locke, argues that mankind is rational and therefore capable of devising a state that relfects our needs. Counter to the divine right and kings and the idea that we had a religious duty to obey the state
6
Q
On what grounds do liberals reject the OT notion of human imperfection
A
Argues we have a huge capacity to bring about progress and greater happiness. They believe this because we are guided by reason and are therefore able to calculate the answers to problems
7
Q
How do liberals say that human reason manifests itself
A
In debate, discussion, peaceful arguement and measured examination of ideas and opinions. Rather than meekly accepting whatever life offers on the grounds that it is the will of God or fate - instead we have a capacity to plan for the future and and bring about a preconceived outcome
8
Q
How do liberals view human problems
A
As things that can be solved through reason and determination
9
Q
What do liberals think that reasoned discussion leads to?
A
Consensus, since rationality is universal across all humans
10
Q
Explain egotistical individualism
A
Linked to clasical liberalism, denotes the belief that human beings are naturally drawn to the advancement of their own selfish interests and happiness. They deny this leads to gross insensitivity due to our rationalism
We are naturally drawn to situations where we are independent and in charge of our own destiny. Our rationality stops this leading to selfishness and destructions. We are both egotistical and reasonable, making them sensitive to the perspectives of their fellow man
11
Q
Define self determination
A
Control of your own life
12
Q
Define self realisation
A
Discovering their true selves and potential
13
Q
Define self fulfilment
A
A sense of one’s personal mission being achieved
14
Q
In which work did Adam Smith outline his theory of free markets
A
The Wealth of Nations (1776)
15
Q
What aspect of the liberal state does the Lord Acton quote justify
A
Fragmented govt
16
Q
When did classical liberalism occur
A
Late 17th to late 19th centuries
17
Q
What two sub categories can classical liberalism be split into
A
Early classical liberalism and later classical liberalism
18
Q
List the 4 distinctive features of classical liberalism
A
Revolutionary potential
Negative liberty
Minimal state
Laissez faire capitalism
19
Q
Define laissez faire capitalism
A
Influenced by negative liberty, an economic system that allows private enterprise and capitalism to operate with little to no state interference
20
Q
Give some examples of revolutions that Locke’s ideas are associated with
A
The 1688 Glorious Revolution
American revolution from 1775 onwards
21
Q
How did Wollstonecraft say that 18th century English society saw women
A
As emotional creatures suited to marriage and motherhood but little else
22
Q
Give some examples of early classical liberals
A
Locke
Voltaire
Montesquieu
23
Q
Explain the idea of negative liberty
A
The notion that freedom involves individuals being left alone to pursue their destiny. Any attempt to interefere with individual actions can therefore be seen as an infringement upon liberty. People are assumed to be free to do something unless someone puts a brake on their actions. The idea had implications for classical liberal notions of economics and the size and role of the state
24
Q
Explain the idea of a minimal state
A
Reflects negative liberty by minimising state actions - for instance, legislation and taxing as little as possible, confining its influence to areas like defence and the protection of private property
25
Give some quotes from Thomas Jefferson supporting the idea of a minimal state
'The govt that is best is that which governs least'
'When govt grows, our liberty withers'
26
How does fragmented govt support a minimal state
Because a state containing lots of checks and balances would be one where bold state action was difficult and therefore infrequent
27
How did Smith support laissez faire capitalism in the wealth of nations (1776)
Said that capitalism and the invisible hand of the market had an endless capacity to enrich people and society. The wealth acquired by individuals would trickle down to the rest of society - just as long as the state took a laissez faire approach to the workings of the market
28
What did Smith advocate for the govt to end on the basis of his faith in laissez faire
Tariffs and duties, which had protected domestic producers and inhibited the spread of free trade between nations and their commercial classes
29
When did later classical liberalism occur
early to mid 19th century
30
How was society in 1800 different to the one Locke lived in
They had become more industrialised and the population had undergone urbanisation, individuals had a growing sense of class consciousness and as a result there was a growing interest in concepts like democracy and socialism
31
List 4 later classical liberals
Jeremy Bentham
Samuel Smiles
Herbert Spencer
JS Mill (most important)
32
Describe Bentham's contribution to later classical liberalism
Developed a supposedly scientific alternative to natural rights theory based on the idea that we all work to maximise utility be maximising pleasure and minimising pain. Bentham acknowledged that in an industrialised society this could produce more clashes between individuals than early classical liberals had envisaged. He therefore suggested that the liberal state needed to be more proactive, using the hedonic calculus to inform legislation and policy. Provided liberalism with one of its earliest justifications for democracy, that govts were more likely to follow the greatest good for the greatest number if they were elected and accountable to the greatest number of votes
33
Describe Samuel Smiles' contribution to later classical liberalism
Fearing that individualism was threatened by socialism and its call for more state provision, in Self Help he argued that self reliance was still perfectly feasable for most individuals, including members of the working class. Acknowledged that industrialised society made it harder for people to be self reliant: as an increasing number became faceless employees. Smiles argued that in having to come over greater obstacles, individuals would be challenged more rigorously and in the process we would therefore become more fully developed. Argued that if self help were usurped by state help then humans would remain stunted, their talents unknown, and their liberty squandered'
34
Describe Herbert Spencer's contribution to later classical liberalism
Acknowledged the importance of self help and shared Smiles' contempt for more state intervention. However, in Man Verses the State (1884), Spencer questioned Smiles' belief that all individuals could rise to the challenge of self help, noting the presence of 'the feeble, the feckless and the failing' in Victorian cities. Fearing this feeble minority could justify the extension of state power (which he saw as synonomous with an erosion of the freedom of the majority), Spencer sought to apply the principles of natural selection. In what became known as social darwinism, Spencer restated the classical liberal belief in a minimal state and negative freedom, claiming this would lead to survival of the fittest and the gradual elimination of those unable to enjoy the benefits of individualism. The eventual result would be a society where rational self reliance was the norm and where individual freedom could thrive
35
What separate strand of liberalism altogether have many suggested Mill represents
Transitional liberalism or developmental individualism
36
Describe how Mill updates Locke's case for representative govt into a case for representative democracy
Under this model, the enlarged electorate (which Mill now saw as inevitable despite its risk of tyranny of the majority) would not make decisions for themselves but would elect liberally minded representative to make decisions for them. When making decisions these representative would not simply side with the majority view but would seek to aggregate the various opinions within society so as to produce the broad consent of all. In putting forward this model of democracy, Mill allowed liberals to rebut other forms like direct democracy as being more conducive to a tyranny of the majority.
37
How did Mill deal with his worry that voters in the mid 19th century would be ill-equipped to select intelligent representatives to make rational decisions on their behalf
He said that universal suffrage must be preceded by universal education, hoping this would promote developmental individualism. Here, Mill meant the advancement of individual potential so as to produce a liberal consensus in society: thus safeguarding reason, tolerance and individualism. Meanwhile, a vote would be withheld from the illiterate and unschooled, while those with a uni education would receive more than one vote
Said once widespread education had been secured, democracy could actually further liberal values - promoting opportunities for political education and enlightening debate. Said politicians would be better suited to fulfilling the utility principle since they could decide what is in everyone's interest rather than just their own
38
Explain the idea of developmental individualism
Looks to focus on what individuals could become rather than what they are right now
39
Why was Mill's advocacy for universal education somewhat contradictory
Questions over who would provide it considering his ideas of negative liberty and a minimal state led him to reject the idea of state provision
40
Make the case that liberal democracy is a contradiction in terms
Democracy tends to be guided by majorities which means the tyranny of the majority can threaten some individuals
Classical liberals favoured limited suffrage in order to protect property rights
Mill thought votes should only be given to those with a proper formal education
Modern liberals often support supranational bodies where there is a democratic deficit
Liberals want to mitigate the effects of democracy through constitutional devices like a BoR or an SC
41
Make the case that liberal democracy is a not a contradiction in terms
Democracy complements individualism, as it allows individuals to shape their lives at the ballot box
Democracy complements govt by consent
Democracy helps avoid concentration of political power
Democracy is optimistic about human nature: presupposing an intelligent electorate capable of rational decisions
Mill thought democracy would have an educative effect on voters and would therefore aid developmental individualism
42
When did modern liberalism start
Late 19th century
43
Explain the modern liberal notion of positive liberty and social justice
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries a number of English philosophers known as the new liberals re-examined the core principles of liberalism
TH Green LT Hobhouse and JA Hobson argued that modern societies at their time made a mockery of the idea that we are free and autonomous. They said that the nature of economics and society meant that individuals were increasingly at the whim of socio economic forces beyond their control. Such forces would then make it impossible for people to seek self determination or self realisation, even though they might not have caused the socio economic problems that were now restricting their liberty. They therefore argued that social justice was needed as well as legal justice if individuals were to fulfil their potential. They interpreted the notion of negative liberty and thought freedom to instead mean something more cooperative and altruistic, with some individuals enabling or empowering other individuals. This would then allow these people to act in a way they could not have done if they had simply been left alone: this became known as positive freedom
Individuals that are left alone are often inhibited rather than free
Individuals have to be free from socio economic problems like poor healthcare or education or unemployment
44
Explain the modern liberal concept of an enlarged and enabling state
We need a large state to combat the socio economic threats to liberty and individualism. John Rawls justified a substantial expansion of the state in the name of individual liberty: more laws, more state bureaucracy, more tax and spend. Modern liberalism is therefore linked to collectivism
45
Give some examples of modern liberal collectivism
1906-10 Liberal govt with Herbert Asquith as PM and David Lloyd George as chancellor. Passed the 1908 people's budget, which introduced a state pension to liberate people from the financial problems of old age, funded by increased taxation of property owners
Keynes was a professional liberal committed to the maintenance of a capitalist economy. The Great Depression convinced him that neither individual freedom nor the survival of capitalism and constitutional states was helped by the cyclical nature of laissez faire capitalism. He feared that mass unemployed not only deprived millions of their individual freedom, but also paved the way for illiberal doctrines like communism and fascism. In The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money (1936), he said that the state must constantly steer the economy and manage demand so as to secure full employment, as he thought that without this individual liberty would be difficult. Influenced many mid 20th century govts shaping FDR's New Deal in the USA and the UK's economic strategy between 1945-1979
William Beveridge was a liberal social scientist and his 1942 Beveridge Report was the bedrock of the post war welfare state. Developing the ideas of TH Green, he said that individuals in the post war world faced five giants threatening their individual freedom and potential: poverty, unemployment, poor education, poor housing and poor healthcare. He argued that these giants could only be overcome through an expansion of state power
46
Give an example of someone who criticised modern liberalism for betraying classical liberal principles and blurring the lines between liberalism and socialism
Friedrich von Hayek
47
How did Rawls counter Hayek's criticisms
He said that only an enlarged state could guarantee the equality of opportunity necessary to enable individual freedom.
48
What did Rawls use his veil of ignorance thought experiment to prove
To prove that while an enlarged state would force some individuals to sacrifice more of their earnings through things like progressive taxation, they could still be persuaded that this could be a good and necessary thing and that the enabling state was therefore consistent with the notion of govt by consent
49
Explain the idea of an enabling state
A state that wants to extend its activities so as to liberate individuals from restrictive socio economic problems and thus enable them to fulfil their true potential - linked to positive liberty
50
What was Rawls' attitude to inequality of outcome
He said that while he wanted to improve the lot of society's poorest through state intervention he remained indifferent ti inequality of outcome. For liberalism this is an obvious side effect of individual freedom and provides a key difference with socialism. Rawls said the aim was to improve the socio economic condition of society's poorest and thus enable them to exploit their individual potential and achieve control of their lives. He said that as long as this was achieved the gap between the richest and the poorest was a secondary concern
51
What were the two key principles of Rawls' key work A Theory of Justice (1971)
1) To state that the core principle of foundational equality required greater socio economic equality rather than just formal equality under the law. Said this was necessary to ensure a just society where all could be rich and fulfilled. Said this could only be provided by significant wealth redistribution from an enabling state, with extensive public spending and progressive taxation
2) Set out to show that wealth redistribution was not a 'surrender to socialism' (Hayek). To prove this Rawls constructed some philosophical conditions. The first was 'the original position' where individuals would be asked to create from scratch a society they deemed superior to the current one. Central to the exercise were questions over how wealth and power should be distributed. The second condition was 'the veil of ignorance' where people would have no preconceptions about the type of person they might be in this new society
52
What did Rawls conclude from his thought experiment
He said that when faced with such conditions rational, empathetic human nature would lead individuals to choose a society where the poorest fared significantly better than they do in present society. Crucially he found out that the kind of society he advocates for is one individuals would choose. Therefore his ideas are in line with the liberal idea of govt by consent
53
How did Rawls distance himself from socialism
He said that although most individuals would choose to improve the lot of the poorest, they would still want considerable scope for individual liberty, self fulfilment, and therefore significant inequalities of outcome. So although he argued the state should improve the lot of the poor, he did not argue that the gap between the richest and poorest should necessarily be narrowed.
54
Describe constitutional reform/liberal democracy as a theme of modern liberalism
Because it seeks to extend the state, modern liberalism also sees the need reform it. 'If the state is ti to be enlarged, it is to be improved' (Hobhouse)
If only to secure the principle of govt by consent, modern liberalism has been associated with ongoing constitutional reform. In the UK, liberals have demanded a codified constitution, devolution, electoral reform (particularly PR) and a more accountable HoL
The most important part of the support for constitutional reform has been its support for liberal democracy. For example, a liberal PM oversaw the 1918 Representation of the People Act and, liberals pushed for the voting age to be lowered to 18 and now push for it to be lowered to 16
However, the modern liberal support for democracy is not unqualified, they tend to discourage direct democracy in order to protect liberal values. This can be seen in liberal support for the HRA (which effectively transferred power from elected politicians to unelected judges) and their support for supranational bodies like the EU. Eurosceptics have often portrayed the EU as a vehicle for liberal bureaucrats who are afraid of democracy allowing them to advance liberal initiatives without being hindered by accountability to voters. Many modern liberals see the Brexit referendum as an unfortunate example of the tyranny of the majority and a vindication of Mill's arguement that such decisions are better off left to a liberally minded parliament
55
Make the case that modern liberalism has abandoned the principles of classical liberalism
Classical liberals believe in negative liberty whereas modern liberals believe in positive liberty
Classical liberals want a minimal state, modern liberals want a large enabling state
Classical liberalism saw most tax as theft and looked to restrict it. Modern liberals see progressive taxation as a key method for implementing positive freedom
Classical liberalism favours laissez faire capitalism, modern liberals favour keynesianism
Modern liberals are more enthusiatic about democracy
56
Make the case that modern liberalism has not abandoned classical liberalism
Both classical and modern take a positive view of human nature
Both believe in rationalism and tolerance of minorities
Both see individualism as the goal of politics and society - just differ about how to achieve it
Both believe in capitalism and oppose state ownership of the economy
Both believe in a state limited by a constitution and govt by consent
57
Describe social liberalism as an aspect of modern liberalism
An attempt to update the classical liberal notion of tolerance. From the mid 20th century onwards, modern liberalism became associated with calls for greater racial and sexual tolerance with thinkers like Friedan arguing that too many individuals were held back by innate characteristics like ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation or disability. Given the acceptance of positive liberty and the enlarged state, modern liberals like Friedan argued that the answer to these problems lay in further legislation, further state regulation and in some cases positive discrimination. This involved the state and other employers correcting a historical imbalance by discriminating in favour of individuals from groups that were said to have been discriminated against previously, thus securing greater equality of opportunity
Modern liberalism became associated with things like JFK's Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) which required those managing projects funded by the state to take affirmative action with respect to hiring employees from racial minorities. UK modern liberals gave backing to legislation like the 1976 Race Relations Act and the 1975 Sex Discrimination Act, which criminalised various forms of negative discrimination against women and ethnic minorities
Friedan's importance to modern liberalism lay in her insistence that such reforms were consistent with the liberal tradition. Citing the harm principle, she claimed that laws criminalising sexual discrimination were designed merely to prevent some female individuals having their freedoms harmed by others. Consistent with modern liberal suppport for an enlarged state, these laws were usually accompanied by interventionist agencies like the EEOC. Friedan explained these agencies were still consistent with the liberal state's original aim of the protection and advancement of natural rights
58
Explain Friedan's concern for individualism
She insisted all individuals should be free to control their own lives and the full realisation of their potential. She argued that gender was a serious hindrance to women in this respect
59
How did Friedan explain female underachievement
She said it was down to illiberal attitudes in society rather than human nature. Said these attitudes were nurtured and transmitted via society's various 'cultural channels' like schools, organised religion, the media and mainstream, literature, cinema and theatre. These channels of 'cultural conditioning' left many women convinced that their lot in life was determined by human nature rather than their own rationality and enterprise. Friedan wanted to challenge this irrational assumption
60
Why is Freidan classed as a liberal feminist
Always disdained violence and illegality as a means of pursuing change, arguing significant progress could be brought about through legal equality brought about by a liberal state. Therefore acknowledged the principles of the US Constitution (heavily influenced by Locke) and endorsed its ability to provide continuous improvement to individuals lives. She therefore rejected the more radical feminist arguement that the state was patriarchal and forever under the control of men in favour of a theory more in line with liberal constitutionalism
61
Would von Hayek have classed himself as a conservative or a liberal?
He thought neo liberalism represented the third strand of liberal philosophy. In The Road to Serfdom (1944) he was insistent that he was not a conservative, later arguing that he and like minded philosophers like Karl Popper and like minded economists like Milton Friedman favoured radical change rather than conservative stability, which Hayek argued was based on their belief in endless human potential
Hayek dismissed conservatism's rigid defence of the status quo (especially when it involved a defence of hereditary influence) and was as passionate as most other liberals about constitutional reforms that checked executive power
Recent neo liberals, like those at the Adam Smith Institute, have also opposed some of the social policies associated with conservatism. For instance, the Cameron govt's promotion of marriage via the tax system was attacked as an unwelcome intrusion into people's lives by the state
62
What makes neo liberalism distinctive?
It seeks to update the principles of classical liberalism within a 20th and 21st century setting, aiming to reapply the ideas of classical liberals to modern societies and modern, globalised economies
It also offers a liberal critique of modern liberalism, accusing it of betraying individualism and being a sellout to both socialism and conservatism. Hayek criticised the Beveridge Report and its notion of the state supporting people 'from cradle to grave' as fostering 'state paternalism' or 'dependency culture' while legitimising state restraint on individual initiative
Spurred on by the crises of the 1970s - when the efficiency of keynesianism and welfare spending were brought into question, neo liberals re-advertised the benefits of negative freedom and a minimal state, calling for politicians to 'roll back the frontiers of the state' and thereby 'set the people free'. They demanded a reduction in public spending, often facilitated by the privatisation of public services and deregulation. This will allow lower tax rates and the gradual replacement of dependency culture with a new ethos of enterprising individualism
63
Why have neo liberals been labelled as conservatives despite insisting that they are not?
Their views are seen as reactionary rather than progressive, seeking to restore the economic arrangements of the 19th century as opposed to promoting innovative and novel ideas for the future. They also played a key role in the development of New Right conservatism, via politicians like Thatcher and Reagan
64
Summarise Locke's view on the state
Must be representative and based on consent
65
Summarise Locke's view on human nature
We are rational and guided by the pursuit of self interest, but mindful of others concerns
66
Summarise Locke's view on society
Society predates the state: there were natural societies with natural rights and laws
67
Summarise Locke's view on the economy
Policy should reflect the natural right to private property
68
Summarise Wollstonecraft's view on human nature
Rationalism defines both genders and men and women are not very different intellectually
69
Summarise Wollstonecraft's view on the state
Monarchical state should be replaced by a republic that enshrines women's rights
70
Summarise Wollstonecraft's view on society
Society has infantalised women and therefore stunted their individualism
71
Summarise Wollstonecraft's view on the economy
A free market economy would be energised by the enterprise of liberated women
72
Summarise Mill's view on human nature
Though fundamentally rational it is not fixed and is forever progressing to a higher level
73
Summarise Mill's view on the state
The state should proceed cautiously towards representative democracy and remain cautious of a tyranny of the majority
74
Summarise Mill's view on society
Individualism should co exist with tolerance and self improvement
75
Summarise Mill's view on economy
Laissez faire capitalism vital to progress, individual enterprise and individual initiative
76
Summarise John Rawls' view on human nature
Mankind is selfish yet empathetic, valuing individual liberty and the plight of those around them
77
Summarise John Rawls' view on the state
Should enable the less fortunate to advance via public spending and public services
78
Summarise John Rawls' view on society
The society most would choose is the one where the conditions of the poor are improved
79
Summarise John Rawls' view on the economy
Free market capitalism should be tempered by the state's obligations to advance the poorest
80
Summarise Friedan's view on human nature
Human nature has evolved in a way that discourages female self advancement
81
Summarise Friedan's view on the state
The state should legislate to prevent the continued discrimination against women
82
Summarise Friedan's view on society
Society remained chauvanistic towards women and women were complicit in their repression
83
Summarise Friedan's view on the economy
Free market capitalism could be an ally of female emancipation, if allied to legislation preventing female discrimination
84
Describe the liberal tensions over human nature
All liberals believe we are rational, intelligent and keen to prioritise our own individual happiness and self fulfilment and respectful of other individual's wish to the same.
Early classical liberals like Locke and neo liberals like Hayek believe we are innately blessed with such qualities, while Mill and modern liberals like Rawls think these are potential features of human nature to be developed through enlightened liberal authorities. This is why modern liberals endorse Mill's concept of individuality - one that refers to what individuals become, once enabled to fulfil their potential
85
Describe the liberal tensions over society
Classical liberals believe human society predates the state, while all liberals see society as a collection of diverse and potentially autonomous individuals, seeking self realisation, self determination and self fulfilment. Modern liberals like Rawls believed that industrialised and urban societies are those where individuals are less autonomous and therefore require a state to be free (positive liberty). Neo liberals often see society as one where individuals have been stymied by positive liberty and that dependency culture must be countered by radically rolling back the frontiers of the state. Some neo liberals see the ideal situation as one where there is no such thing as society, just a collection of autonomous individuals pursuing their own ends
86
Describe the liberal tensions over the state
All feel it should be constrained by pre-arranged procedures and rules, with power fragmented and authority subject to the consent of the governed. Liberals vary on the extent of state activity. Classical liberals like Mill believed state intervention should be limited and individuals should be left unchecked. Modern liberals like Friedan believe that state intervention should be more extensive so as to enable us to reach our potential. Varied opinion over how democratic the state should be. Modern liberals are happy with representative govt but early classical liberals saw democracy as a threat to property rights
87
Describe liberal tensions over the economy
Following Locke's assertion that property ownership is a natural right, all liberals believe the economy should be based on private property and enterprise. Classical liberals and neo liberals support Adam Smith's ideas of laissez faire while modern liberals tend to support Keynesianism. Modern liberal support for managed capitalism also explains its support for supranational organisations, which many neo liberals see as an obstacle to global free trade
88
Make the case that liberals have a coherent view of the state
Liberals are optimistic about human nature and believe we are rational. Therefore coherent that they believe in a constitutional state preceded by rational discussion
Believe in govt in consent. Therefore coherent that a constitutional state should be founded upon a contract between the governed and the govt
Because of the contractual nature of the state, it is coherent they believe in limited govt where politicians are restrained by the rules of a constitution
Liberals like Locke speak of a natural society in which all individuals enjoy natural rights. Limited state is therefore coherent because it embodies these natural advantages through tools like a BoR
The liberal state was a reaction to the medieval state in which power was concentrated in the monarch. Therefore coherent that the liberal state should be one where power is fragmented
89
Make the case that liberals do not have a coherent view of the state
Supposedly supports foundational equality where all individuals are treated equally. However, the liberal state was slow to adopt the principles of democracy, sexual equality and universal adult suffrage
The liberal state extols the natural right to property, but fails to recognise that must citizens do not own property
Defends govt by consent yet its constitution allows the consent of the majority to be defied through things like courts and checks and balances
The liberal state is supposed to be limited but modern liberals want a massive extension of state power
Modern liberals have compromised their belief in govt by consent by supporting supranational organisations, which arguably erode the authority of elected parliaments and representatives
90
