The core ideas of liberalism

Question 1

Liberal view of human nature…

Answer 1

Strongly reflects enlightenment views. One of its most important features had been the challenge it issues to the traditional medieval view of human nature - one strongly tied to the religious doctrine of original sin. This held that mankind was deeply flawed and imperfect, and that man’s only hope lay in him acknowledging his flaws and imperfections while praying for the grace and forgiveness of God

Liberal thinkers reject this view and offer a more positive account of human nature. They argue that human nature has a capacity to bring about progress and an unending ability to further human happiness. At the heart of this view is the idea that individuals are guided by reason and rationality, and are thus able to calculate the answers to all sorts of problems

Liberals believe this innate reason is manifested in debate, discussion, peaceful arguement and the measured examination of ideas and opinions. Rather than meekly accepting what life offers as fate or the will of God, individuals have the capacity to plan for their own future

For liberalism human problems are merely challenges awaiting a solution: individuals who want to overcome something can use their reason and determination to do so. Because they assume that rationality is universal across all humans, they assume that reasoned discussion will lead to consensus

Liberals see humans as self seeking and self serving, hence there associated with egotistical individualism. This idea is linked to classical liberalism, which denotes that humans are naturally drawn to the advancement of their own self interest and the pursuit of their own happiness. Its proponents deny this leads to conflict or gross insensitivity. Egotistical individualism suggests that humans are naturally drawn to a situation where they are independent and in control of their own destiny. Liberals argue that it is this very rationality that prevents this from leading to destructive selfishness and competition. Liberals claim we are both egotistical and reasonable, making them sensitive to the perspectives of others. See the natural condition of human nature as one of self aware individuals living in peace, harmony and mutual understanding

Question 2

Liberal view of society…

Answer 2

Their optimistic view of human nature and reason informs their view about whether society can ever exist without a state. In Leviathan (1651) Hobbes argues that human nature is so brutally selfish that no society could arise or survive until human nature restrained by a formal and powerful authority. Liberal philosophers like Locke offered the different view, citing a natural society for natural laws and therefore natural rights (including the rights to life, liberty, property and happiness) all of which preceded the state. Life before the state was not as nasty, brutish and short as Hobbes would have it and was instead rather pleasant, civilised and long

Their belief in a natural society with natural rights helps explain the importance they place on the individual. JS Mill said that the many purpose of any society, natural or manmade, is to facilitate individualism. Mill and others argued that each individual has a unique personality and peculiar talents and that they are rational in the pursuit of their self interest; think that they are egotistical, driven by a wish to fulfil their potential and be self reliant and indpendent. This view says that all individuals seek freedom. For Mill in On Liberty (1859), this specifically meant freedom from any dependency on others and a freedom to live life in a way that maximises self dependency and self fulfilment

Liberals believe that the default setting of any society should be to focus on individual freedom and that any society that rejects individualism is dysfunctional

Individualism is a vital part of liberal ideology. Means that the individual should be at the heart of political thought, economic life and social organisation, and that society should promote the improvement of diverse individual lives. The implications of this is that liberal politicians will seek to…

Maximise the number of individuals achieving self determination, self realisation and self fulfilment

Question 3

Why is property ownership seen as being essential for individualism

Answer 3

Liberals regard the right to property as particularly important, as it is seen as the tangible expression of the individual within society. For later liberals like Mill, property in the prism through which individuals can develop their potential, providing an opportunity within civilised communities for people to nurture their taste and judgement

Question 4

Liberal attitude to the economy

Answer 4

Liberalisms devote to private property informs its approach to the economy. Given its belief that property ownership is a natural right, it is inevitable that liberalism would support an economy that puts private property at the heart of economic arrangements. It is inevitable that they would support capitalism

Strongly associated with private enterprise and private ownership of the economy. This explains why capitalism is often described as economic liberalism, and provides a key difference between socialism and liberalism. Although liberals and socialists share many assumptions and objectives, and criticise many of the same things, liberals will still ultimately defend a market based economy and stridently reject the anti capitalist message of socialism

Their endorsement of capitalism is strongly linked to their positive view of human nature. Adam Smith argued that if obstacles to free trade were removed, then the invisible hand of the free market would guide traders towards success, with the resultant wealth trickling down to everyone, and the wealth of nations would be promoted globally. In the view of many non liberals this a niave view about the power of market forces

Question 5

Define economic liberalism

Answer 5

Another term for capitalism. Economic system that developed in 17th century Europe. The liberal aspect of capitalism stems from three factors…

1) Private property, which classical liberal thinkers like Locke considered to be a natural right

2) Individualistic, with individual traders cooperating and competing

3) Thought to be the ultimate benefit of all - thus revealing liberal optimism and belief in eternal progress

Reflects the liberal belief that private property ownership is a natural right and that private enterprise allows individual liberty

Question 6

Why is the individualistic view of society and capitalist view of the economy not unique to liberalism

Answer 6

It also applies to several branches of anarchism, known as individualist anarchism.

What makes liberalism distinctive is that while anarchists see any state as being the eternal enemy of individualism, liberals like Locke and Smith believe that individualism and capitalism work best when accompanied by a certain kind of state

Question 7

Origins of the notion of a liberal state…

Answer 7

While liberalism takes a positive view of human nature, it still accepts that within the state of nature there would have been clashes between individuals and groups pursuing their own egocentric ends. Locke was especially worried that without the formal structures that only a state can provide, the resolution of such clashes, particularly those concerning property, might not always be swift and efficient. Individualism in the state of nature could have been impeded by stalemated disputes between competing individuals, so a state was required to effectively arbitrate between the competing claims of rational individuals

Liberals believe that the state of nature, tolerable though it may have been, is still inferior to the formalised state liberals recommend

Question 8

What is the state of nature

Answer 8

17th century philosophical device used by both Locke and Hobbes to justify the very different types of political state they recommended. Refers to what life might have been life before laws, formal rules and govts

Question 9

Objectives of the liberal state

Answer 9

Although thinkers like Locke and Mill justified the existence of the state on the grounds of more conflict resolution, they later became keen to show that the kind of state they proposed embodied wider and grander principles. These principles were to be developed in the 1689 BoR, the 1787 American Constitution and the first French Republic of 1789. From these historical events emerged various objectives, which are central to an understanding of what a liberal state tries to achieve

Question 10

Explain the objective of rejecting the traditional state

Answer 10

Founded upon the rejection of pre-enlightenment European states, states that were monarchical, absolutist and arbitrary. Renounced the kind of state where power is concentrated in the hands of an individual where this power is exercised randomly. Particularly contemptuous of any govt that claimed a divine right to govern, according to the subjective and thus irrational perception of God’s will

Question 11

Explain the liberal state objective of govt by consent

Answer 11

Liberalism insists that the state is legitimate only if those under its jurisdiction are under its jurisdiction voluntarily: the govt must have the consent of the governed

Citizens were no longer considered to be subjects of the state, the people in the state would now have control over it

‘The govt should always be the servant, not the master, of its people’ (Locke)

Govt by consent can be linked to the idea of govt by contract that was later developed by thinkers like Rousseau.

Question 12

Explain the idea of the social contract

Answer 12

Individuals contract out the state of nature and contract in to the formal state of law and agree to accept the latter’s authority and restrictions, but are promised something in return

The term denotes that the state should be in a deal between the govt and the governed. States that in return to submitting to the state’s laws, the governed should be guaranteed certain rights

Question 13

Explain the tolerance/harm principle

Answer 13

Refers to the belief that particular views and activities, particularly those we might frown upon, should be tolerated so long as they do not harm the freedom of others. Both concepts are strongly linked to the liberal concept of individual freedom

Question 14

Explain the liberal state’s goal of promoting natural rights/individualism

Answer 14

Liberals assume that before the state was created individuals enjoyed natural rights that enabled self realisation and self determination, and thus individualism. So it would be irrational for individuals to abandon both natural rights and individualism by submitting unconditionally to a state. The only reason to be part of a state would be if it upheld and respected natural rights, ensuring they were more safely and easily exercised than in the state of nature

Question 15

Explain the liberal state’s goal of promotion of tolerance

Answer 15

Linked to the devotion to natural rights, also concerned to ensure tolerance towards all those individuals who exercise their natural rights in various ways. Tolerance is linked to individualism - how could an individual seek self determination if his actions and opinions were to be forbidden by others

‘I detest what you say but will defend unto the death your right to say it’ (Voltaire)

This was developed a century later by JS Mill, who insisted that the state should tolerate all actions and opinions unless they were shown to violate the harm principle - the principle that individuals should be free to say and do anything unless it could be proved that this harmed the rights and freedoms of other individuals within the state

Although liberalism is individualistic, it recognises that individuals do not necessarily seek isolation and detachment (an atomised environment) but are instead drawn to societies that accommodate their individualism. When promoting tolerance, liberals were aware that individuals tended to congregate in religious communities. It was therefore important that the state should show tolerance to such communities, especially minorities. In the wake of 1688 Glorious Revolution, which cemented protestant supremacy in England, Locke was keen to make sure that the post revolution state would extend tolerance towards Catholics

Tolerating minorities has been an ongoing passion for those seeking to advance and debate the liberal state. Since the mid 20th century, American liberals such as Betty Friedan have sought to update Locke’s belief in tolerating minorities, campaigning for the state to improve the lives of individuals hindered by ethnicity, sexuality, physicality or gender

Although liberalism has always placed on importance on individualism, liberal thinkers came to realise that individuals do not necessarily seek tolerance in isolation from others. Instead liberal thinkers like Thomas Hill Green accept that individuals will be drawn to and rely on societies that can tolerate their individalism

Question 16

Explain the liberal state’s goal of meritocracy

Answer 16

Power should be exercised only by those who show themselves to be worthy of it. Govt should be conducted by those who through their own efforts and talents have won the trust of the governed. There is no guarantee that this responsibility will be conferred upon the descendants of those who govern - unless they too can demonstrate competence and intergrity

The meritocratic liberal state stood in contrast to the traditional state. In pre enlightenment times power was largely hereditory and aristorcratic, with circumstances of birth triumphing individual ability. Aristocracy had no place in the liberal state according to thinkers like Locke and Mill

Question 17

Explain the liberal state goal of equality of opportunity

Answer 17

Think that all individuals are born equal have equal natural rights and are of equal value - a belief often referred to as foundational equality. All individuals must have equal opportunity to develop their potential and achieve control of their own lives. If an individual fails to achieve their potential they must claim full responsibility for this, and not somehow blame the state

Question 18

Explain the idea of foundational/legal equality

Answer 18

Refers to the liberal belief that every individual is born equal, with equal natural rights. Such individuals are therefore entitled to legal equality in a liberal state. This involves equality before the law and an equal recognition of individual rights

Question 19

Explain justice as a goal of the liberal state

Answer 19

The idea that the state should treat individuals fairly and justly without regard for their identity. Individuals must be able to assume a just outcome from any complaints they express and therefore a satisfactory resolution to any grievances they have with others

Question 20

What three structures must a liberal state embody

Answer 20

Constitutional/limited govt

Fragmented govt

Formal equality

Question 21

Explain the idea of constitutional/limited govt

Answer 21

Holds that the contract between the govt and the governed should be cemented in the constitution. In keeping with the belief in rationalism, this constitution should be preceded by extensive discussion and consensus over what the govt should do and how they should do it. This constitutional rule is a stark contrast to arbitrary monarchical rule, where rulers did whatever they pleased using whatever methods they wished

A liberal constitutional will impose two broad limitations on govt. Ensures that govt acts within pre arranged systems and rules, not in a random ad hoc fashion. Designed to prevent govts eroding the natural rights of their citizens (BoR)

Question 22

Explain the idea of fragmented govt

Answer 22

Dispersal of state power. Reaction to pre-enlightenment states where power was concentrated in the monarchy. Reflects liberalism belief in the rationality of mankind: if individuals are generally reasonable and inclined to self determination, it seems logical to empower as many individuals as possible in the functions of the state

The US were heavily influenced by Locke in making sure there were checks and balances within constitution to prevent the accumulation of power in any one branch

Question 23

Give a quote from Lord Acton that explain why fragmented govt

Answer 23

Power tends to corrupt, and absolute power tends to corrupt absolutely

Question 24

How is power dispersed within a liberal state

Answer 24

Formal separation of powers between the three branches

Bicameral legislature to produce a separation of powers in this branch

BoR to counteract short term decisions of the govt

SC to uphold this BoR, whose decisions override elected govt

Federal system of govt where many of the state’s functions are delegated to regional authorities

Question 25

Explain the the idea of formal equality

Answer 25

Given their belief in foundational equality, which states we are all born with equal rights, it would be illogical for a liberal state to not reflect this with its own structures. The liberal state therefore strives for formal equality, where all individuals have the same legal and political rights in society. Emphasises the rule of law, which holds that laws apply to everyone, with no exemptions on the basis of status. No one should be outside or above the law

Also involves the idea of equal political rights - equal right to petition parliament, equal rights to bring a BoR case before the courts and the equal right to criticise the state and in so doing exercise the natural rights to free speech and publication

Question 26

In supporting individualism, liberals are especially concerned with individuals with minority characteristics. Give some examples

Answer 26

The cause of 17th century English nonconformists was backed by Locke

Wollstonecraft backed women in 18th century England, particularly those aspiring to property and education

Friedan backed American women seeking professional careers in the 1960s

Writers like Shon Faye have supported sexual minorities

In all cases, liberals are keen to protect the individuals concerned against what Mill termed ‘dull conformity’ and ‘suffocating convention’

Question 27

How do the ideas of self realisation and self realisation go hand in hand

Answer 27

Because you people would not be able to achieve self realisation if society was intolerant and there would be no difference for society to tolerate if everyone was simply the same

Question 28

How can tolerance of minorities cause problems for a liberal society

Answer 28

To what extent should a liberal society tolerate minority positions that seem illiberal

How should they respond when the agenda of one discriminated against minority clashes with another

Question 29

How would Mill respond to such issues

Answer 29

Argue that greater ‘enlightenment’ will produce greater all round tolerance and consensus. Intolerance and opposition to liberal ideas are often assumed by liberals to be the result of ignorance/misunderstanding. For this reason Mill’s faith in consensus by education remains crucial to liberalism, providing means through which the minority interest of society can be reconciled - both to majority and minority interests within society

Question 30

Describe the liberal defence of private property

Answer 30

Locke considered property ownership to be a natural right that predates any state. Later thinkers like JS Mill argued that property facilitated individualism - incentivising individual enterprise, reflecting each individual’s preferences and providing a sense of independence. Many liberals see property as a crucial vehicle for self realisation and self determination. Locke pointed out that when lots of individuals own property, this offers further protection against concentrated power and overbearing rulers who threaten natural rights

Question 31

Describe the liberal defence of capitalism and inequality

Answer 31

The original liberal economist was Adam Smith and he extolled free trade and free markets in the late 18th century. Liberalism has been strongly associated with private enterprise and private ownership of the economy ever since

Its support for capitalism is linked to its upbeat view of human nature. In making the case for free market economics, Smith optimistically asserted that, if obstacles to free trade were swept away, and if individuals were allowed to trade freely, the invisible hand of the free market would eventually enrich all nations and individuals

Although capitalism produces inequality of outcome, liberals support this on two grounds…

1) Economic liberals at the UK’s Adam Smith Institute, assert that individual wealth and individual economic success will eventually trickle down to the majority in society

2) They endorse Mill’s view that unequal outcomes are consistent with a meritocratic society - one that encourages individualism, and which rewards those who have earned their advantages. However, as John Rawls argued, liberals should only defend inequality of outcome if there is equality of opportunity

Question 32

How can support for capitalism cause discord amongst different liberals

Answer 32

Liberals disagree about what kind of capitalism is best for liberty and prosperity. 19th century liberals like Mill supported laissez faire capitalism, whereas liberals in the mid to late 20th century like Rawls tended to favour Keynesian capitalism

Question 33

Explain Keynesianism

Answer 33

Form of capitalism that involves the state managing and directing market forces to ensure steady growth, full employment and therefore greater individual liberty

Question 34

How does liberal support for capitalism compare with conservativism and socialism

Answer 34

Conservatives support capitalism and defend the subsequent inequality of outcome, particularly New Right conservatives. Socialism, with its greater concern for equality of outcome, tends to be more critical of capitalism, with some thinkers like Marx demanding the overthrow of capitalism and private property

Question 35

Describe the liberal rejection of anarchism

Answer 35

Liberalism is not the only ideology to promote individualism: the idea is also found in some strands of anarchism, such as anarcho capitalism, which argue that the state should be abolished in the interests of individual freedom. What makes liberalism distinctive is the belief that self realisation, self determination and self fulfilment are best served by the existence of a state, rather than leaving individuals in a condition of anarchy (where formal laws and authority are absent). However, given Locke’s belief in natural rights and the related belief that society predates the state, liberals do not accept that any kind of state is preferable to anarchy. Instead they insist that the state must meet certain conditions so that individuals are not left worse off than they were under the state of nature

Question 36

Explain the liberal rejection of traditional/pre-Enlightenment states

Answer 36

Dismiss them because they believe in consent and social contracts. Medieval states were marked by

Divine right of kings - the idea that the power of the monarch had been conferred by God and to question it was effectively blasphemous

Monarchical absolutism - Where power rested almost entirely with the monarchy

Arbitrary power - Where the monarch exercised power randomly, unrestrained by any clear code of governance

Hereditary power - Where power was exercised by those who inherited it, rather than those who demonstrated their ability to use it rationally

Early liberals like Locke argued that states like this were both morally illegitmate, in that they were unlikely to respect natural rights, and intellectually illegitimate, in that they were an affront to makind’s rationality and cognitive potential

Question 37

Explain the liberal idea of the contractual state

Answer 37

Support govt by consent. Locke said a state only has legitimacy if those under its jurisdiction agreed to be under its jurisdiction. This idea has had a profound effect on the relationship between politicians and the people. Far from being subjects of the state, people become citizens of the state, with ultimate control over those who govern

The notion of govt by consent is strongly linked to the notion of govt by contract - or what Locke and other enlightenment thinkers dubbed as the social contract. Liberals believe that the state of nature was not necessarily undesirable. Therefore individuals will only contract out the state of nature and contract in the formal state if they are promised advantages in return. If those advantages stop then citizens are entitled to call the state illegitmate, cancel the contract between the govt and the governed and return to the state of nature

Question 38

Explain the liberal idea of the social contract

Answer 38

Linked to enlightenment philosophers like Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, this indicates that the state should be a deal between govt and governed, where the governed defer to the govt only if that state guarantees certain outcomes, like the effective protection of natural rights

Question 39

How did the 1776 American Declaration of Independence reflect the notion of the contractual state

Answer 39

Because it said that when the govt becomes tyrannical ‘it is the Right of the People to alter or abolish it’

Question 40

Explain the liberal state’s objective of promoting natural rights

Answer 40

The main objective of the liberal state is to improve upon the rights that individuals enjoyed in the state of nature - notably the right to life, liberty property and the pursuit of self fulfilment. This was famously embodied in the US Constitution and Declaration of Independence

John Rawls has subsequently endorsed that idea that liberalism is ‘state sponsored individualism’ as opposed to the ‘stateless individualism’ of anarchist thinkers like Max Stirner. Furthermore, if the state is structured in a certain way, it can allow individuals to enjoy their natural rights more easily than in the state of nature. As Locke conceded, the state of nature would still involve occasional clashes of self interest (over entitlement to uncultivated land for example) with such clashes only being resolved after lengthy informal quests for compromise. The liberal state would offer faster and fairer methods of compromise, such as through impartial courts, allowing individuals to more swiftly resume the exercise of their natural rights

Question 41

Explain the liberal state of promoting equal opportunities and unequal outcomes

Answer 41

Given the liberal belief that every individual is born equal with equal rights, it is logical that the liberal state ensures that we are equally treated. One of the chief justifications for a liberal state is its capacity to provide all with equal opportunities for self fulfilment. The liberal state must not be static in this respect. As TH Green and John Rawls argued, the liberal state must evolve to counter new threats to individual liberty

It is important to note that unlike socialist states, liberal states will be far less concerned with equality of outcome, an obvious side effect for liberal support for capitalism and private ownership. Liberals like Rawls argue taht inequality of outcome is an inevitable and desirable consequence of individual diversity. The liberal state wants to see meritocratic inequality of outcome, one that rewards individual effort and achievement rather than hereditary advantages

Question 42

Explain the liberal idea of equality of opportunity

Answer 42

Believe all individuals should have an equal chance to develop their potential. Liberals believe that this will lead to inequality of outcome, arising from unequal abilities

Question 43

Explain the liberal objective of promoting tolerance

Answer 43

Aims to promote tolerance through its laws and institutions. For instance, they will look to outlaw and forms of intolerance regarding freedom of speech and religion. Classical liberals like Mill argued that greater tolerance could be encouraged through education. Modern liberals like TH Green would go on to argue that only that state could provide this kind of universal education. 20th century liberals like Betty Friedan argued that the state’s role in promoting tolerance should be extended further to include racial and sexual discrimination. Friedan also argued that a more tolerant society could be ‘psychologically embedded’ by the state, via bureaucratic agencies with an educational function (such as the UK’s Equality and HR Commission)

Question 44

Compare the big 3s idea of what the state should do

Answer 44

Although socialists share that liberal view that the state should promote liberty, unlike liberals they believe that the state should promote equality of outcome, solidarity and social justice. For conservatives the primary role of the state is to faciliatate order and safety, although New Right conservatives share the liberal view that the state should respect individual freedom

Question 45

Explain the liberal idea of foundational equality

Answer 45

All individuals are born equal and entitled to equal treatment by the state. Connects to formal equality.

Question 46

Explain the liberal structure of a constitutional/limited state

Answer 46

At the heart of liberals is that power should not be exercised in an arbitrary and unlimited way. Instead power should be limited by…

• The preconditions of the govt: the terms on which the governed initially give consent to be governed, as part of the original social contract between the state and its citizens
• The procedures and methods of govt, as rationally agreed when the contract between state and citizens is being reached

These conditions and procedures would be duly enshrined in a constitution: the rule book of the liberal state. This constitution would be constructed after exhaustive rational discussion among its architects (e.g., the FF at the 1787 Philadelphia Convention) and would define the extent and procedures of state power

Inherent to this constitution would be formalised equality, reflecting the liberal belief that we are born equal. As such, a liberal constitution would give equal legal and political rights to all, such as the universal right to petition govt, and apply the rule of law so that state laws are applicable to everyone, regardless of class or status

Question 47

What social group did liberalism reflect the views of

Answer 47

The educated middle classes, who sought wider civil liberties and opportunities to better themselves

Question 48

Why was the classical liberal idea of foundational equality limited

Answer 48

Because many thinkers excluded women and minority ethnic groups

Question 49

Who wrote the US declaration of independence

Answer 49

Thomas Jefferson

Question 50

Explain the liberal idea of individualism

Answer 50

Stress in the importance of the individual over the claims of any social group or collective body.

Individualism can be interpreted in two ways. Classical liberals believe in egotistical individualism, which states that people are essentially self seeking and self reliant. This view minimises the importance of society, seeing it as little more than a collection of independent individuals. More widely held in the modern world is the notion of developmental individualism. This concept plays down the pursuit of self interest, and has been used to justify support for some state intervention in society to help the disadvantaged

Another idea linked to the importance of the individual is tolerance - a willingness to accept values customs and beliefs with which one disagrees. This is one of the natural rights that liberals believe all should have, which should not be taken away against the will of the individual. Originally this referred to the tolerance of different religious beliefs, but today it has been extended to a wide range of views and practises. For instance, liberals tend to take a relaxed view on liberal matters

Question 51

Explain the liberal idea of developmental individualism

Answer 51

The view that individual freedom is linked to the desireti create a society in which each person can grow and flourish

Question 52

Explain the liberal idea that human nature is egotistical

Answer 52

From Locke onwards liberal have argued that we are all endowed with certain natural rights: for instance, the right to life, liberty and the pursuit of self fulfilment. Also argue that humans are fundamentally driven by egotistical individualism, as a result they believe that every individual seeks self realisation, determination and fulfilment

Liberals argue that when these things are denied we are left demoralised and de energised and afflicted by the sense of a wasted life. This arguement was at the heart of complaints articulated in the respect of women by liberal feminists like Mary Wollstonecraft and Betty Friedan, both of whom argue that men and women share such values and desires

In ‘The Feminist Mystique’ (1963), Friedan protested that huge numbers of women were ‘quietly suppressed’ by the ‘gender expectations’ of post war America, and that such women were subsequently ‘de-humanised’ by a society that in this respect was insuffiently liberal. Specifically referring to women in convention suburban environments ‘trapped by an obligation to surrender their own dreams in order that husbands and children can follow theirs’, Friedan linked rising levels of female depression and suicide to a ‘suffocating sense that the natural urge to feel happy and fulfilled was denied’. To illustrate this point, she depicted a fictional but typical housewife in 1960s suburban America:

As she made the beds, shopped for groceries and comforted the kids, she was afraid to even ask herself the question ‘Is this all?’

Question 53

Explain the liberal idea of egotistical indvidualism

Answer 53

Term reflecting the liberal belief that humans are naturally drawn to the advancement of their own selfish interests. Defenders claim that because human beings are rational, egotistical individualism does not necessarily lead to conflict or an insensitivity to the wishes of others

Question 54

Explain the liberal view that human nature is rational

Answer 54

Critics of liberalism suggest that egotism makes for selfishness and endless conflict between individuals, this gloomy view of egotism is encapsulated by thinkers like Hobbes.

Liberal thinkers like Locke and Mill dispute this. They say that though we may be egotistical, are behaviour is also rational and therefore respectful to others; guided by reason and logic rather than emotion and impulse. In this way our rationality allows us to realise that selfishness and disrespect can rebound and have negative consequences for us. If we do not respect others in their pursuit of self realisation, then others might not respect us - with the result that we ourselves could be left frustrated. As a result liberals see human nature as fundamentally self centred, but also thoughtful and empathetic, drawn to intelligent compromise and mutual understanding with others

Question 55

Describe the liberal idea of developmental individualism

Answer 55

Sometimes referred to as individuality, and relates to the liberal philosophy of Mill, who wished to focus on what individuals could become. It helps expain Mill’s strong emphasis on the role of education in a liberal society

Question 56

Explain the liberal idea that human nature is progressive

Answer 56

Most liberals argue that human nature is not set in stone. It constantly progresses and develops through greater knowledge, an improved understanding of the world around us, and greater education. Human beings are progessively more likely to be rational, intelligent and respectful as time goes on

This idea is called developmental individualism and links strongly to the doctrine of utilitarianism

Question 57

Explain the optimistic liberal view of human nature

Answer 57

Given their belief in rationality and improveability, liberals are clearly optimistic about the human condition and reject the idea of original sin - the OT doctrine which insists that humanity is innately flawd and inclined to fail. From Locke onwards, liberalism has challenged this bleak view, offering a more positive view of human nature

Argues that human nature has the capacity to effect steady progress and increase human happiness. They admit that life is difficult, but insist that through rational discussion and informed debate, solutions can be found to problems that normally arise