Cultural Revolution - more

Question 1

When did the Cultural Revolution take place?

Answer 1

1966 - 76.

Question 2

What were Mao’s 3 aims of the Cultural Revolution?

Answer 2

1) Remould Chinese culture.
2) Purge the CCP leadership.
3) Rectify the CCP, to prevent them from becoming akin to the USSR.

Question 3

Name some members of the CCRG (7 possible).

Answer 3

1)Kang Sheng (head of the Central Case Extermination Group).
2) Jiang Qing (Mao’s wife).
3) Wang Li (propagandist).
4) Zhang Chunqiao (deputy head of the CCRG).
5) Yao Wenyuan (literary critic).
6) Qi Benyu (a theorist).
7) Chen Boda.

Question 4

What were Jiang Qing’s beliefs on culture?

Answer 4

She believed that culture was a reflection of the society from which it springs, and serves a political purpose.
This means that a bourgeois society would produce bourgeois culture. Therefore, she believed it necessary to
eradicate all feudal, foreign and bourgeois influences in China, in order to achieve a socialist society.

Question 5

What were the ‘Four Olds’?

Answer 5

Old culture, ideas, customs, and habits.

Question 6

How was culture ‘reformed’ in the Cultural Revolution (5)?

Answer 6

1) Traditional opera was suppressed, and replaced with 8 ‘revolutionary’ operas, focusing on peasants, workers
and soldiers.
2) Literature, art, film, and theatre were subject to strict censorship, and only those promoting revolutionary
themes were allowed.
3) Western music was labelled bourgeois and decadent, and was therefore banned.
4) Wearers of Western-style clothing were liable to be attacked.
5) Anything deemed as representative of the past (temples, art, ornamental gardens, etc.) were liable for
destruction.

Question 7

Why did Mao want the Cultural Revolution to rectify the CCP away from the model of the USSR?

Answer 7

After Khrushchev’s disposal in 1964, for ‘hare-brained economic schemes’, Mao realised that the situation in
China resembled that of the USSR (GLF failure). He was convinced that the CCP had become overly
bureaucratic, corrupt and ineffective on all levels, and was on the path of revisionism. He believed that the
CCP needed to be rectified in order to prevent this.

Question 8

Why did Mao believe that the CCP was undergoing a class struggle in 1965?

Answer 8

Mao believed that the CCP was growing increasingly bureaucratic and corrupt, with the economic planning
of ‘pragmatists’ leading to increased inequality. Mao accused Liu and Deng of taking the ‘capitalist road’ and
running ‘independent kingdoms’.

Question 9

Explain the events leading up to the Cultural revolution (9) (Nov 1965 - Aug 1966).

Answer 9

1) Nov 1965: Mao goes to live in Shanghai, distancing himself from the CCP leadership in Beijing.
2) Wu Han and Peng Zhen are attacked for the play: ‘Hai Rui Dismissed from Office’.
3) Feb 1966: The Shanghai Radicals broaden their attack on culture and the ‘sinister anti-Party and antiSocialist line’. Lin Biao gives Jiang Qing responsibility for the PLA’s cultural policies.
4) Mar 1966: Peng Zhen purged.
5) May 1966: Mao takes control of the CRG, claiming it to be too bureaucratic, with the new CRG including
his allies. The first large character wall poster is displayed at Beijing University.
6) June 1966: Protests in Beijing University spread to other schools in the city. Liu and Deng try to regain
control by sending in work teams. This fails, and schools are suspended.
7) July 1966: Mao swims in the Yangzi River, before returning to Beijing.
8) August 1966: At the Central Committee meeting, Mao launches an attack on Liu, and issues a 16-point
document on the aims of the CR.
9) Mao encourages the Red Guard to ‘Bombard the Headquarters’ through a large character wall poster. This
is followed by a series of rallies at Tiananmen Square, attended by 13 million Red Guards.

Question 10

What was the chronology of the purge of the CCP leadership March - October 1966 (9)?

Answer 10

1) In March 1966, while Liu was away, Mao, with the support of Kang Sheng, Lin Biao and Chen Boda,
purged Peng Zhen. This was after Deng and Zhou abandoned their support for him, as it was career suicide to
do so.
2) In May 1966, Mao took control of the CCRG, and reformed it with his allies. Mao’s intentions became
clearer. Liu and Deng still believed they could satisfy Mao, and control events.
3) Also in May, a large character wall poster was put up in Beijing University, orchestrated by Kang Sheng,
and endorsed by Mao, spreading the movement across China. By early summer, turmoil broke out across
schools.
4) Liu and Deng tried to rectify this, sending work teams to control the movement, and direct criticism at
individuals, rather than the Party in general. Mao saw this as proof that Liu and Deng were against him.
5) In July 1966, Mao swam in the Yangzi River, and returned to Beijing. This showed he was ready to fight,
and his criticism of Liu became open and direct.
6) In August, at the Central Committee meeting, Liu was forced to make self criticisms for sending work
teams to universities. Mao accused him of exercising dictatorship in Beijing and resisting the CR. Liu was
demoted from 2nd to 8th in the hierarchy, replaced by Lin Biao - Mao’s new successor.
7) In October, at a Party Conference, Liu and Deng were subject to more criticism and self-criticisms.
8) Liu died in prison in 1969, being denied treatment for illness. Deng survived due to support from Zhou
Enlai, and was rehabilitated in 1973.
9) Mao purged others for ‘old thinking’ and lacking enthusiasm for the CR. E.g. Tao Zhu, Wang Rezhong, He
Long and Zhu De.

Question 11

What was the key chronology of the Cultural Revolution (Aug 1966 - Apr 1969) (9)?

Answer 11

1) Aug 1966: Launch of the Cultural Revolution.
2) Nov 1966: Factional rivalries appear in the Red Guard.
3) Dec 1966: Fighting between Red Guard factions in Shanghai.
4) Jan 1967: January Storm in Shanghai + Shanghai Revolutionary Committee (SRC) set up.
5) Feb 1967: February Crackdown + February Adverse Current.
6) Aug 1967: Beginning of the purge of radical Red Guard units.
7) July 1968: The PLA take over Qinghua university campus in Beijing.
8) Oct 1968: CCP Central Committee declares the Cultural Revolution ‘a great and decisive victory’.
9) Apr 1969: CCP Party Congress declares the end of the Cultural Revolution.

Question 12

What was the key chronology of the Cultural Revolution Sept 1971 - Sept 1976 (6)?

Answer 12

1) Sept 1971: Lin Biao’s death in a plane crash.
2) Feb 1972: President Nixon visits China.
3) Aug 1973: Wang Hongwen confirmed as Mao’s successor, Deng Xiaoping rehabilitated, start of the AntiConfucius campaign.
4) Jan 1976: Death of Zhou Enlai.
5) Apr 1976: 1976 Tiananmen Incident/Festival of the Dead demonstrations.
6) Sept 1976: Death of Mao Zedong.

Question 13

What was the state of China in August 1966 , and what were the Red Guards doing (6)?

Answer 13

1) Schools/universities were closed, with chaos and violence spreading across China.
2) Red Guards targeted intellectuals, teachers, the ‘five black categories’, and non-Communists. They were
free to beat, humiliate and kill.
3) The Red Guards began a campaign to eradicate the Four Olds, and any trace of Western influence in
China, with ‘correction stations’ set up at street corners.
4) Historic sites (temples, statues, artifacts, etc.) and religious buildings were damaged.
5) Red Guards invaded/ransacked the private homes of those suspected being bourgeois.
6) Antiques, jewellery, paintings, books, foreign currency, etc. were confiscated or destroyed. Books by
authors considered feudal/bourgeois were burnt.

Question 14

How did the Red Guards punish their targets (3)?

Answer 14

1) Appeared before struggle meetings, wearing dunce’s caps, and were subject to verbal and physical abuse.
2) Paraded through the streets in dunce’s caps.
3) Forced to adopt the ‘jet-plane position’ for hours.
This caused serious injury as well as death.

Question 15

Why did factional rivalries begin to emerge amongst the Red Guards in September 1966?

Answer 15

Some officials encouraged the formation of Red Guard units that were more under the control of the Party
bureaucracy - ‘conservative mass organisations’. They recruited workers and students whose parents were
Party cadres. The most radical Red Guard units were composed of students from bourgeois backgrounds.
This caused splits and rivalries in the Red Guards.

Question 16

What were the origins of the January Storm (3)?

Answer 16

1) In January 1967, strikes paralysed the port of Shanghai and the railway network around the city.
2) On 3rd January 1967, the ‘revolutionary rebels’ seized control of the main newspapers in Shanghai,
resulting in the collapse of the authority of Party leadership in Shanghai.
3) Mao intervened, sending Zhang Chunqiao and Yao Wenyuan to bring down the Shanghai Party Committee
and establish a new authority.

Question 17

What did Mao do on 23rd January 1967, and what was its significance for the Cultural Revolution?

Answer 17

On 23rd January 1967, Mao disbanded the Shanghai people’s commune, and replaced it with the Shanghai
Revolutionary Committee. This was made up of Red Guards, PLA representatives, and Party officials, and
became a prototype for other revolutionary committees.
This was significant because the role of organising and supporting the new revolutionary committees fell to
the PLA, as the CCP were in disarray.

Question 18

What were the origins of the February Crackdown (3)?

Answer 18

1) Many of the top PLA commanders wanted the PLA to be insulated from the revolutionary upheavals
destabilising China, and that the discipline of the army should be maintained - PLA officers should not be
subject to struggle meetings.
2) The CCRG believed that no sector of China should be immune from the rectification campaign. Mao did
not reveal his views, but prohibited attacks on the PLA. However he did not condemn radical military cadets
who staged struggle meetings against their commanders.
3) In the absence of clear political leadership, some senior military commanders acted on their own initiative,
using armed force to suppress radical Red Guard units and arrest their leaders.

Question 19

What were the events of the February Adverse Current (4)?

Answer 19

1) In February 1967, Mao criticised Jiang Qing and Chen Boda for making decisions on the CR without
consulting him. This opened up backlash and criticism towards the CR from Politburo members.
2) Politburo members pointed out that the Red Guard had overstepped the boundaries of the CR, as laid out
in the Sixteen Points.
3) A Politburo directive, with Mao’s support, imposed limits on the use of force by Red Guards, ordered them
to stop travelling the country and return to their home city, and to withdraw from Party/government
departments.
4) The PLA were tasked with restoring order.

Question 20

What was the significance of the February Adverse Current (5)?

Answer 20

1) Mao saw the criticism of the CR as a challenge to his authority, confirming his decision to attack the CCP
establishment.
2) After February 1967, the Politburo practically ceased to function, and its powers were transferred to the
CRG.
3) The criticism of CCP veterans became more sustained.
4) PLA officers who had attempted to crackdown on radical Red Guards were denounced as ultra-rightist and
court martialled.
5) The PLA were ordered to refrain from using armed force against Red Guards.

Question 21

Who were the May 16 Group, and what was their significance for the Cultural Revolution?

Answer 21

The May 16 Group was a ultra-left group, with only about 40 members. They had blamed and attacked Zhou
Enlai for the Adverse Current. By August 1967, they no longer existed, however Mao branded it as a
‘counter-revolutionary clique’ and exaggerated its importance. This provided him with an excuse to crack
down on radical groups.

Question 22

When, how, and why did Mao begin the crackdown on radical Red Guard units (5)?

Answer 22

1) On 11th August 1967, Mao stated that the ‘policy of dragging out capitalist roaders in the army’ was
‘unstrategic’.
2) This was because he realised he was undermining the PLA as a disciplined and effective
fighting force with his radical policies.
3) This signalled a crackdown on radical groups and their leaders, with the earlier chaos and radicalism
blamed on the May 16 Group, a tiny radical group few had heard of before it was named as a scapegoat.
4) In late August 1967, the 4 most radical members of the CRG were purged, and in September Mao forbade
Red Guards from seizing weapons.
5) The PLA was authorised to open fire on radical groups in self-defence.

Question 23

What was the significance of the events of August - September 1967 on the Cultural Revolution (3)?

Answer 23

1) The main focus of the CR shifted from the destruction of an old order, to the creation of a new system.
2) Mao ordered the Red Guard factions to unite and form ‘grand alliances’.
3) Mao called for rapid progress in the set up of new Revolutionary Committees. This happened in Beijing
and Shanghai, but in other areas factional rivalries delayed the process.

Question 24

What was the ‘Cleansing the Class Ranks’ campaign (3)?

Answer 24

1) A Maoist campaign, launched in 25 May 1958, targeting radical Red Guards, class enemies, and ‘stubborn
bourgeois power holders’ (supporters of Liu Shaoqi).
2) Torture, trial by suspicion, conviction by forced confessions, massacres and other forms of mass killings
all took place. Around 30 million people are estimated to have been persecuted, with an estimated death toll
of 0.5-1.5 million.
3) Jiang Qing and her allies were a driving force behind the campaign.

Question 25

Evidence for the 'cleansing the ranks' campaign

Answer 25

1) 70% of the provincial and regional officials purged - including 4/6 Regional Party First Secretaries 2) Nationally over 60% of high ranking officials lost their jobs 3) Only 9 out of 23 Politburo members survived from 1966 - 69 4) Locally approx. 20% of Party bureaucracy labelled revisionists or 'taking the capitalist road' 5) Kang Sheng's "Centra Case Examination Group" executed 14,000 party cadres in Tunnan province, in Inner Mongolia 16,000 killed, 89,000 beaten or maimed (+ therefore unable to be an official)

Question 26

How did the PLA take action against Red Guard units in Shaanxi and Guangxi in summer 1968?

Answer 26

The PLA attempted to restore order in Shaanxi and Guangxi by separating the rival factions and setting up Military Control Commissions. In Guangxi, this provoked a wave of indiscriminate slaughter, with so-called ‘traitors’ being killed and their livers eaten by assailants.

Question 27

Explain the final suppression of the Red Guards (Qinghua) (3).

Answer 27

1) There was serious violence and disorder on university campuses across China, with Mao now believing that the leadership of the CR should be in the hands of the workers, not students. 2) In July 1968, Mao sent a team of 30,000 workers and PLA troops to Qinghua University campus (Beijing) to disarm the student Red Guards. 3) 10 people were killed in the fighting.

Question 28

What was the Up to the Mountains and Down to the Countryside Movement (4)?

Answer 28

1) Following the suppression of the Red Guards in July 1968, Mao issued a large-scale, compulsory rustication movement, where urban youths were sent to live and work in the countryside. 2) Between 1968-70, 5 million youths were sent to complete work-study programmes among the peasants. 3) Several million Party cadres and intellectuals were ordered to live in May Seventh Cadre Schools. 4) In total, around 17 million youths were sent to rural areas as a result of the movement.

Question 29

What were May Seventh Cadre Schools?

Answer 29

Camps set up for the ‘re-education’ of Party cadres through physical labour, political study, and learning from the peasants. They were located in rural areas, far from the cities, with as many as 3 million sent to them.

Question 30

How and when did Liu Shaoqi die?

Answer 30

In October 1968, Liu Shaoqi was expelled from the Party and from government, despite no longer possessing any power, and was blamed for many of the failings of the CR. Liu was imprisoned in an unheated room in the Party HQ in Kaifeng. In November 1969, he developed pneumonia, but permission to move him to a hospital was refused. Liu died on 12 November 1969.

Question 31

When did the Cultural Revolution officially end, and what was the significance for Mao?

Answer 31

1) In April 1969, a Party Congress officially declared the end of the Cultural Revolution. 2) A new Party constitution stressed the ‘guiding’ role of MZT, and the importance of class struggle in CCP ideology. Mao’s position was secured.

Question 32

To what extent did the Cultural Revolution enhance the political power of Lin Biao (4)?

Answer 32

1) The political profile and prestige of the PLA was enhanced due to their role in clamping down on the Red Guards - in the 1969 Congress 2/3 of delegates = PLA, 45% of Central Committee members + PLA 2) Lin Biao held enormous power: Commander-in-Chief of the PLA, Defence Minister, Politburo member and Mao’s nominated successor. 3) Lin had gained Mao’s trust throughout the CR, promoting the cult of Mao through the ‘Little Red Book’ and his open praise in speeches to Mao. 4) The PLA dominated the Party at local and provincial levels.

Question 33

To what extent did the Cultural Revolution enhance the political power of Jiang Qing (4)?

Answer 33

1) As Mao’s wife, she was able to make powerful allies and extend her own influence. 2) Closely associated with Lin Biao, the Shanghai radicals, and Kang Sheng. 3) A driving force behind the CR, through the CRG, and was promoted to the Politburo in 1969. 4) Although the CRG was wound up in 1969, and Mao was moving away from the ‘ultra-left’, in November 1970, Jiang gained control of the Central Committee’s Organisation and Propaganda Group. This gave enormous power over Party affairs, propaganda and the media.

Question 34

To what extent did the Cultural Revolution enhance the political power of Zhou Enlai (3)?

Answer 34

1) Zhou was State Premier, and so was in charge of an enormous State bureaucracy. 2) Zhou was the ‘great survivor’, skilled in diplomacy and negotiation, knowing when to suggest something to Mao, or when to withdraw support for a former ally. 3) Targeted by Jiang Qing and her allies, as they stressed the need for revolutionary zeal and ideological purity, whilst Zhou was focused on political stability and economic growth, achieved through pragmatic policies.

Question 35

Why did Mao begin to view Lin Biao as a ‘Chinese Bonaparte’ in 1969 (2)?

Answer 35

1) Lin had gained the most from the CR, yet soon after the 1969 Party Congress, Mao began to have doubts over Lin. He expressed concern over the was China seemed to be under PLA rule. 2) Having studied Marx, Mao was wary of over-powerful military commanders, who may want to establish a military dictatorship.

Question 36

How did relations between Mao and Lin Biao deteriorate in 1970 (3)?

Answer 36

1) In 1970, Mao wanted to abolish the post of State Chairman, formerly belonging to Liu Shaoqi, but Lin made efforts to persuade Mao to keep it. This made Mao believe Lin wanted the position for himself. 2) Mao was angered when Lin enlisted the support of Chen Boda, his longstanding ideological advisor. When Chen attacked Zhang Chunqiao for opposing Lin, Mao denounced this as factionalism. Chen was arrested and forced to self-criticise. 3) By the end of 1970, Mao decided to move against Lin Biao by ‘throwing stones, mixing in sand, and digging up the cornerstone’. This whittled away at Lin’s power base.

Question 37

What was ‘throwing stones, mixing in sand, and digging up the cornerstone’ (3)?

Answer 37

1) ‘Throwing stones’ meant forcing Lin’s allies to self criticise. 2) ‘Mixing in sand’ meant undermining Lin’s control of the Military Affairs Committee by adding Mao loyalists to the body. 3) ‘Digging up the cornerstone’ meant reorganising the key Beijing military region. Mao needed to ensure the troops in the capital were loyal to him. Military commanders loyal to Lin were transferred to other areas.

Question 38

Explain the fall of Lin Biao (February - September 1971) (6).

Answer 38

1) By February 1971, Lin Biao realised his position was untenable and decided to fight back. His son Lin Liguo began to plan a coup (Project 571), including the assassination of Mao and Zhang Chunqiao. 2) When Mao toured China Aug - Sept 1971, Lin realised the clash was coming to a head, instructing his son to activate the plans for the coup (Project 571). 3) Mao, potentially aware of Lin’s plans, concealed his whereabouts, and held crisis talks with his senior military commanders. 4) Lin and his son decided to fall back on the backup plan, and set up a rival regime in Guangdong. Word reached Zhou Enlai, and although he was unable to stop the plane taking off, prevented it from fully refuelling. 5) Lin decided to flee to the USSR instead of southern China, but with insufficient fuel, the plane crashed in Outer Mongolia, killing all 8 on board. 6) Lin was denounced as a ‘renegade and a traitor’, who had been working as a Soviet agent.

Question 39

When did Lin Biao die?

Answer 39

13 September 1971.

Question 40

What was the impact of the fall of Lin Biao on the Chinese political situation (5)?

Answer 40

1) Senior military commanders who had been allies of Lin Biao in the Politburo were purged. The PLA still retained a strong presence in the government and the Party. 2) Mao was emotionally and physically shattered, becoming bed-ridden for 2 months. His health never fully recovered. 3) Mao’s reputation suffered, with his judgement brought into question, and revealed the intrigue of the CCP to the wider public. 4) Undermined the Chinese public’s faith in Mao and the system. 5) Reopened the question of succession to Mao, causing political manoeuvring and factional rivalry.

Question 41

To what extent did Zhou Enlai’s political power grow in 1972 (4)?

Answer 41

1) Jiang Qing and the radicals were tarnished due to their close ties with Lin Biao. 2) Zhou used his position to stimulate production and economic growth, partially through his strategy of the Four Modernisations. 3) Zhou was involved in the decision to invite President Nixon to China. 4) He was unable to remove the radicals from their positions of influence, despite his successful pragmatic policymaking.

Question 42

What was the significance of the Tenth Party Congress in August 1973 on Chinese politics (4)?

Answer 42

1) The radicals were able to consolidate their position, of the 9 appointed to the Politburo Standing Committee, 3 were associated with the radicals, and only 1 with Zhou Enlai. 2) Mao unveiled Wang Hongwen as his new choice for the succession. 3) Mao agreed to the rehabilitation of Deng Xiaoping to work as an understudy to Zhou (who had terminal cancer) and to work alongside Wang Hongwen. 4) Mao intended for this to bring a balance of moderates and radicals in the Party, but with his health deteriorating, it was unstable and volatile.

Question 43

Who were the Gang of Four?

Answer 43

A political alliance consisting of Jiang Qing, Zhang Chunqiao, Yao Wenyuan and Wang Hongwen.

Question 44

What was the purpose of the Anti-Confucius campaign, who launched it, and when?

Answer 44

Launched in 1973 by Jiang Qing, it was presented as a struggle between those wanting to go forward with Communism, and those wanting to turn back the tide of history. However, the target of the campaign was Zhou Enlai, not Confucius, criticised for his pragmatic polices and betraying Mao and Communism by the radicals.

Question 45

How did the radicals attack Zhou Enlai in the Anti-Confucius campaign (3)?

Answer 45

1) The increased cultural contact with the West was criticised for undermining Mao’s views on art and culture. 2) The reintroduction of exams for university admission (1973) by Zhou Enlai opposed the CR approach to admission being based on background and ideological purity. 3) In opposition to Zhou and Deng’s pragmatic economic policies, the radicals pushed for the expansion of communes, the removal of incentive payments and private plots, and an end to ‘technology transfer’ with the West.

Question 46

Why did Mao begin to support Zhou Enlai during the Anti-Confucius campaign?

Answer 46

originally supported shanghai radicals but under the leadership of Jiang Qing, the campaign began to become a battleground for the factional war against Zhou and Deng. This angered Mao, who began to give Zhou his support.

Question 47

What was the significance of the Anti-Confucius campaign to the problem of Mao’s succession?

Answer 47

Wang Hongwen became associated with the radicals during the Anti-Confucius campaign. After Jiang Qing criticised Deng at a Politburo meeting in October 1974, Wang warned Mao that Zhou and Deng were plotting to seize power. Mao, seeing this for the factional plotting it was, warned Wang not to be misled by Jiang Qing. Despite this, Wang’s alliance with Jiang and her allies strengthened, becoming the ‘Gang of Four’. By 1975, Mao realised that Wang lacked the experience or the independence of mind to be his successor.

Question 48

What was Mao’s physical (3) and political (3) condition in 1975?

Answer 48

Physical: 1) Virtually blind from cataracts over his eyes. 2) Suffered from Parkinson’s disease, and was unable to stand unaided and his speech was badly slurred. 3) He needed oxygen to help him breathe, large doses of drugs rendered him semi-conscious most of the time, with any physical effort tiring him. Political: 1) He retained his mental faculties, and still exercised power. 2) He ha largely withdrawn from public life, but still kept up with all political developments. 3) All important decisions were referred to him.

Question 49

How (4) and why (2) did Deng Xiaoping enjoy a rapid rise through the CCP hierarchy (1974-75)

Answer 49

Why: 1) Zhou was suffering from a terminal illness. 2) Mao was growing increasingly irritated by the factionalism of the Gang of Four. How: 1) In October 1974, he was promoted to second Vice-Premier in the government, responsible for overseeing the State bureaucracy. 2) In January 1975, he took political control of the PLA, and was given a place on the Party Politburo. 3) He restored order in industry by using the PLA to end strikes, whilst pursuing Zhou’s pragmatic economic policies. 4) He held positions in the Party, the State, and the PLA.

Question 50

When did Zhou Enlai die?

Answer 50

8 January 1976. As one of the most popular revolutionary leaders, Zhou’s death caused lots of grief and sadness in China. One million people lined his funeral procession in Beijing.

Question 51

What was the cause of the 1976 Tiananmen Incident?

Answer 51

Using their control of the media, the Gang of Four suppressed reports of the public grief towards Zhou’s death and published an article implying Zhou was a ‘capitalist roader’. This sparked a reaction of support and sympathy for Zhou.

Question 52

What were the events of the 1976 Tiananmen Incident (4)?

Answer 52

1) In April 1976, over 2 mil people attended a Festival of the Dead ceremony in Tiananmen Square to honour Zhou Enlai. 2) This turned into a political protest, attacking the ‘mad empress’ (Jiang Qing), the ‘wolves and jackals’ (the radicals) and the ‘Qin Emperor’ (Mao). 3) After the festival, the police removes all wreaths and posters, but 100,000 demanded the tributes be replaced. This caused clashes between demonstrators and the police and army. 4) There were many arrests, and some executions.

Question 53

What was the significance of the 1976 Tiananmen Incident on Chinese politics (4)?

Answer 53

1) A sign Mao and the Party were beginning to lose control. 2) A Politburo meeting, with Deng absent, blamed Deng for the incident. Mao was informed and agreed. 3) Deng was dismissed from all posts, yet retained his Party membership. He had already gone into hiding in Guangzhou. 4) Mao made Hua Guofeng his successor, and promoted him to Vice-Chairman of the Party. He was already State Premier.

Question 54

Who was Hua Guofeng?

Answer 54

A participant of the Long March and fought against Japan in 1938. He benefitted from the CR, joining the Politburo in 1973. He was a neutral in the factional rivalry of the 1970s.

Question 55

Who did the political rivalry between Hua Guofeng and the Gang of Four escalate (May - September 1976) (4)?

Answer 55

1) In May 1976, Mao suffered a heart attack, and after Deng’s fall, the radicals believed they could bring down Hua Guofeng. 2) During the summer of 1976, attacks on Hua forced him to seek alliances with PLA military commanders. 3) The Gang of Four mobilised the Shanghai militia in August 1976, preparing for an armed confrontation. The PLA saw it as their role to prevent a civil war. 4) Mao’s death in September 1976 intensified the rivalry.

Question 56

When did Mao die?

Answer 56

9th September 1976.

Question 57

By how much did industrial production fall by in 1967?

Answer 57

Industrial production in 1967 fell by 13% compared to that of 1966.

Question 58

What was the impact of the Cultural Revolution on agricultural production, and why (2)?

Answer 58

The Cultural Revolution was much less damaging to agricultural production, with grain production increasing in 1966, 1967 and 1969, showing that the Cultural Revolution was largely an urban phenomenon. 1) Away from big cities, in remote areas, there was little Red Guard activity and peasants were not drawn into power struggles. 2) In rural areas close to cities, peasants were likely to get involved with revolutionary action. Nearly 2/3 of rural disorder reported (July 1966 - December 1968) were within 30 miles of large cities. The countryside around Beijing, Shanghai and Guangzhou witnessed the most revolutionary activity.

Question 59

How did Deng Xiaoping and Zhou Enlai improve the economy in the early 1970s (3)?

Answer 59

1) Many skilled experts who had been purged at the beginning of the Cultural Revolution were allowed to return to their jobs. 2) Schools and universities began to reopen. 3) As China lagged behind the more technologically advanced nations, the PRC began to sign ‘technology transfer’ deals with foreign governments and companies, helping to modernise its industries, especially the energy and aerospace industries.

Question 60

What was the ‘technology transfer’ programme, and give 3 examples of technology transfers?

Answer 60

A programme where China would purchase and equipment and employ foreign experts from foreign governments and companies. 1) Nippon Steel Corporation of Japan built a complete steel plant in Wuhan in 1974. 2) Rolls Royce of Great Britain signed a $100 million agreement to build jet engines in China in 1975. 3) 13 modern chemical fertilizer plants were built using foreign equipment and expertise.

Question 61

When the Gang of Four gained the upper hand in the economic struggle in 1975-76, what did they push for (4), and what was the effect on the economy?

Answer 61

The Gang of Four pushed for: 1) The expansion of communes. 2) The removal of incentive payments and private plots. 3) An end to ‘technology transfer’. 4) ‘Learn from Dazhai’: Dazhai was said to demonstrate how communes were the model for economic/social development through self reliance and mass mobilisation. 5) The conflict between the Gang of Four and the pragmatists in 1976 meant that no economic growth was recorded in 1976

Question 62

What was the impact of the Cultural Revolution on schools/universities (5)?

Answer 62

1) In the summer of 1966, all schools were closed. Whilst some primary and middle schools opened again in 1967, most high schools were closed until 1971. 2) Some universities reopened in 1970, but only selecting based on class background. Many universities did not resume teaching until 1977. 3) Many village schools remained open throughout the Cultural Revolution, whereas in the cities, the disruption was more widespread and long lasting. 4) The Cultural Revolution saw changes to the curriculum, with teaching having to reflect the new political reality. 5) Schools were required to include physical labour alongside study from books.

Question 63

How many young people were sent to the countryside to ‘learn from the peasants’ 1968-76?

Answer 63

Over 12 million young people.

Question 64

What is China’s ‘Lost Generation’?

Answer 64

The closing of high schools and universities denied many from gaining the qualifications needed for career advancement. Many were even unable to resume their education after schools reopened, disadvantaging them in the labour market. These youths are China’s ‘Lost Generation’.

Question 65

What was the impact of the purge of the Red Guards on the youth (2)?

Answer 65

1) The purge of the Red Guards and the sending of millions of youths to the countryside led to many feeling disillusioned. Their experiences in the countryside, seeing the poverty of the peasants and the hollowness of propaganda, led to distrust with the political system and Mao. 2) Many regarded their time in the countryside as a formative experience, giving them an opportunity to reflect and debate the future of China. Many who returned from the countryside in the late 1970s used their experience to formulate ideas for reforms, needed after Mao’s death.

Question 66

What was the impact of the Cultural Revolution on rural health services (5)?

Answer 66

1) Greater access to contraception and improved midwifery services for peasant women. 2) Many urban doctors were sent to rural areas and ‘barefoot doctors’ were introduced. 3) These new doctors provided basic first aid, administered vaccinations, and were responsible for identifying public health hazards. 4) New rural clinics were opened, and in 1968, a rural co-operative medical scheme was extended across all areas. 5) These improvements in health care were not free, and were paid for partially by the state, individuals and communes.

Question 67

When was birth control reinstated as a key element of economic planning, and what were the methods used by the PRC to control the population size?

Answer 67

Birth control was reinstated as a key element of economic planning in 1972. However, at Mao’s insistence, there was no limit on family sizes. Propaganda and exhortation were the methods used by the PRC to control the population.

Question 68

How was religion attacked during the Cultural Revolution (4)?

Answer 68

1) Religion was regarded as ‘old thinking’ and associated with foreign influences, making it liable for attack. The Red Guards entered churches, temples and shrines, destroying their artifacts. 2) Priests, nuns and monks were subject to attacks and violence, and sent to labour camps for ‘re-education through labour’. 3) After 1966, Red Guards destroyed people’s own private shrines, books or artifacts. 4) Although there was no ban on religion, it was still too dangerous for individuals and congregations to continue as before. This forced religion underground.

Question 69

How did Mao’s cult of personality transform into a quasi-religion during the Cultural Revolution (4)?

Answer 69

1) Mao’s portrait was in public places, factories, offices, schools and in people’s homes, where he was placed at the centre of the family alter. 2) People bowed to Mao’s portrait before and after work. 3) Mao’s words were seen as holy, with Red Guards waving copies of the ‘Little Red Book’ and reciting quotations on marches and at study sessions. 4) Many Red Guards visited Mao’s birthplace in Shaoshan (in Hunan province), almost like a pilgrimage.

Question 70

What was the significance of the ‘Little Red Book’ on Mao’s cult of personality (3)?

Answer 70

1) Over 1 billion copies were produced 1964-76, and translated, printed and distributed in many foreign language editions. 2) It was required reading for all Chinese during the Cultural Revolution. 3) Workplaces and army units held study sessions on the book, which all employees were required to attend.

Question 71

How did the anti-Confucius campaign attack ‘old thinking’ (2), and how successful was it?

Answer 71

1) Confucius was condemned as a spokesman of the slave-owning aristocracy and a reactionary obstacle to progress in 5th Century China. 2) There were mass rallies, study sessions and a propaganda campaign to denounce Confucius and those identified as ‘Confuciuses of contemporary China’ (namely Lin Biao + the pragmatists). The attack on Confucius actually led to a revival of the study of his teachings at universities, as professors were able to argue that students should not be expected to condemn what they do not understand.

Question 72

How were the private lives of urban residents impacted by the Cultural Revolution (5)?

Answer 72

1) Cities, such as Shanghai and Beijing, came to a standstill, due to factional fighting and Red Guard activities. In 1967, food supplies in Shanghai fell dangerously low as the city was consumed by street fighting. 2) The Red Guards were left to interpret what to attack in the ‘Four Olds’ campaign, leading to arbitrary attacks. Pedestrians could be attacked for wearing the ‘wrong’ clothes, having the ‘wrong’ hairstyle or for walking their dog. 3) Private homes were invaded and ransacked by Red Guards, with antiques, valuables, instruments, photographs, paintings, etc. were confiscated and destroyed if they were deemed bourgeois. 4) Public spaces, such as theatres, sports stadiums and town squares became venues for public killings. E.g. in Daxing, 300 people were clubbed to death in the town square in a 2 day period. 5) Hundreds of thousands were killed and beaten. Maybe even millions were imprisoned on the flimsiest of evidence, without the opportunity to defend themselves in court, often arbitrarily.

Question 73

What proportion of Beijing homes were searched by Red Guard units in the autumn of 1966?

Answer 73

Between 1/4 and 1/3 of all homes in Beijing were entered and searched by Red Guards in the autumn of 1966.

Question 74

How many died in Guangxi province as a result of the Cultural Revolution 1966-76?

Answer 74

Around 67,000 deaths.

Question 75

What is the death toll of the Cultural Revolution?

Answer 75

Estimates vary greatly, ranging from 500,000 to 2 million.

Question 76

How many intellectuals were persecuted during the Cultural Revolution?

Answer 76

At the Gang of Four’s trial in 1980-81, it was claimed 2600 writers and artists, 142,000 teachers, 53,000 scientists and technicians and 500 professions had been ‘falsely charged and persecuted’.

Question 77

What was the impact of the Cultural Revolution on culture (6)?

Answer 77

1) Scholars, writers, intellectuals and teachers were persecuted, imprisoned or killed, with Jiang Qing the supreme authority over cultural life. 2) Theatres and cinemas were only allowed to put on ‘revolutionary’ plays and films. Operas and ballets had to be personally approved by Jiang Qing. 3) The sale of traditional and foreign literature was banned, and the possession of such material was evidence of a counter-revolutionary crime. Libraries and museums were closed, and their valuable collections damaged or dispersed by Red Guards. Books were piled high in town squares and set on fire. 4) Jiang Qing approved 8 ‘model plays’, including ‘The Legend of the Red Lantern’ and ‘The Red Detachment of Women’. No other plays, operas or ballets could be performed. 5) Chinese orchestras were forbidden from performing Western music. Only arts that served a propaganda purpose or fed Mao’s personality cult were allowed. 6) It was considered counter-revolutionary to show respect for the elderly or one’s parents.

Question 78

How successful was the Cultural Revolution in eradicating old thoughts/customs (2)?

Answer 78

The Cultural Revolution was not very successful in eradicating old thoughts and customs. An example of this failure is the 1976 Festival of the Dead ceremony in Tiananmen Square, following Zhou Enlai’s death, attended by 10s of 1000s. The Festival of the Dead originated from the Confucian idea of reverence for ancestors.