Digestive System Flashcards by Desiree Panghulan

digestive system functions (4)

ingestion
digestion
absorption
defecation

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taking in food

Ingestion

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breaking food into nutrient molecules

Digestion

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movement of nutrients into the
bloodstream

Absorption

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excretes to rid the body of indigestible waste

Defecation

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Two main groups of organs

alimentary canal
accessory digestive organs

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other terms for alimentary canal

gastrointestinal, or GI, tract

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These organs ingest, digest, absorb, defecate

alimentary canal

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Include teeth, tongue, and several large digestive organs;
assist digestion in various ways

accessory digestive organs

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is a continuous, coiled, hollow tube that runs through the ventral cavity from stomach to anus

The alimentary canal

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mucous membrane–lined cavity [both terms]

Mouth (oral cavity)

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protect the anterior opening [both terms]

Lips (labia)

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form the lateral walls

Cheeks

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forms the anterior roof

Hard palate

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forms the posterior roof

Soft palate

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fleshy projection of the soft palate

Uvula

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space between lips externally and teeth and gums internally

Vestibule

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area contained by the teeth

Oral cavity proper

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attached at hyoid bone and styloid processes of the skull, and by the lingual frenulum to the floor of the mouth

Tongue

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2 types of Tonsils

palatine
lingual

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Tonsils located at posterior end of oral cavity

palatine

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Tonsils located at the base of the tongue

lingual

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unit for spiciness

scoville

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spiciness

heat, not taste (pain)

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term for chewing of food

Mastication

mixes masticated food with saliva

Tongue

initiates swallowing

Tongue

allow for taste

Taste buds on the tongue

Food passes from the mouth posteriorly into the: (2)

oropharynx laryngopharynx

pharynx posterior to oral cavity

oropharynx

below the oropharynx and continuous with the esophagus

Laryngopharynx

Food is propelled to the esophagus by two skeletal muscle layers in the pharynx

○ Longitudinal outer layer ○ Circular inner layer

Alternating contractions of the muscle layers (???) propel the food

peristalsis

the esophagus is about how many inches long?

esophagus Runs from ??? to ??? through the ???

pharynx; stomach; diaphragm

Conducts food by peristalsis (slow rhythmic squeezing) to the stomach

esophagus

Passageway for food only

esophagus

respiratory system branches off after the ???

pharynx

Summary of the four layers from innermost to outermost, from esophagus to the large intestine

1. Mucosa 2. Submucosa 3. Muscularis externa 4. Serosa

Innermost, moist membrane

mucosa

type of epithelium in mucosa

mostly simple columnar epithelium

esophagus epithelium type

stratified squamous epithelium

consists of: ○ Small amount of connective tissue (lamina propria) ○ Scanty smooth muscle layer

mucosa

Soft connective tissue with blood vessels, nerve endings, mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue, and lymphatic vessels; Just beneath the mucosa

submucosa

smooth muscle * Inner circular layer * Outer longitudinal layer

muscularis externa

outermost layer of the wall; contains fluid-producing cells

serosa

serosa (2)

visceral & parietal peritoneum

innermost layer that is continuous with the outermost layer

visceral peritoneum

outermost layer that lines the abdominopelvic cavity by way of the mesentery

parietal peritoneum

most common types of peptic ulcer

gastric & duodenal ulcer

ulcer that is Painful when there's absence of food

gastric (poor man's) ulcer

ulcer that is painful when there's food

Duodenal (executive) ulcer

mechanical digestion

chewing in the mouth and churning in the stomach

Chemical digestion occurs from ?? to ??

from stomach to intestine

Chyme

processed food (partially digested food)

Alimentary canal wall contains two intrinsic nerve plexuses that are part of the autonomic nervous system

○ Submucosal nerve plexus ○ Myenteric nerve plexus

Regulate mobility and secretory activity of the GI tract organs

Alimentary Canal Nerve Plexuses

C-shaped organ located on the left side of the abdominal cavity

stomach

stomach: Food enters at the ??? from the esophagus

cardioesophageal sphincter

stomach: Food empties into the small intestine at the ???

pyloric sphincter (valve)

Regions of the stomach (4)

cardial (cardia) fundus body pylorus

region of stomach: near the heart and surrounds the cardioesophageal sphincter

cardial (cardia)

region of stomach: expanded portion lateral to the cardiac region

Fundus

region of stomach: midportion

body

region of stomach: funnel-shaped terminal end

pylorus

stomach: is the concave medial surface

Lesser curvature

stomach: is the convex lateral surface

Greater curvature

Stomach can stretch and hold how much food when full?

4 L (1 gallon)

internal folds of the mucosa present when the stomach is empty

Rugae

○ Double layer of the peritoneum ○ Extends from liver to the lesser curvature of stomach

lesser omentum

○ Another extension of the peritoneum ○ Covers the abdominal organs ○ Fat insulates, cushions, and protects abdominal organs

greater omentum

Simple columnar epithelium composed almost entirely of mucous cells

stomach mucosa

produce bicarbonate-rich alkaline mucus

Mucous cells

Dotted by gastric pits leading to gastric glands that secrete gastric juice

stomach mucosa

needed for vitamin B12 absorption in the small intestine

Intrinsic factor

produce protein-digesting enzymes (pepsinogens)

Chief cells in stomach mucosa

produce hydrochloric acid that activates enzymes

Parietal cells in stomach mucosa

produce thin acidic mucus (different from the mucus produced by mucous cells of the mucosa)

Mucous neck cells in stomach mucosa

produce local hormones such as gastrin

Enteroendocrine cells

Temporary storage tank for food

stomach

○ Site of food breakdown ○ Chemical breakdown of protein begins

stomach

Delivers chyme (processed food) to the small intestine

stomach

The body’s major digestive organ

small intestine

Longest portion of the alimentary tube

small intestine

small intestine length in a living person

2–4 m, or 7–13 feet

Site of nutrient absorption into the blood

small intestine

small intestine is a muscular tube extending from the ??? to the ???

pyloric sphincter to the ileocecal valve

Suspended from the posterior abdominal wall by the mesentery

small intestine

Subdivisions of small intestine

○ Duodenum ○ Jejunum ○ Ileum

Chemical digestion begins in here

small intestine

Enzymes produced by intestinal cells and pancreas are carried to the duodenum by ???

pancreatic ducts

Bile, formed by the liver, enters the duodenum via the ?

bile duct

is the location where the main pancreatic duct and bile ducts join

Hepatopancreatic ampulla

Hepatopancreatic ampulla other term

hepatobiliary duct

Structural modifications (3) ○ Increase surface area for food absorption ○ Decrease in number toward the end of the small intestine

villi microvilli circular folds

fingerlike projections formed by the mucosa  House a capillary bed and lacteal - for movement

villi

tiny projections of the plasma membrane (brush border enzymes) - for absorption

microvilli

deep folds of mucosa and submucosa Helps in movement

Circular folds (plicae circulares)

○ Collections of lymphatic tissue ○ Located in submucosa Increase in number toward the end of the small intestine

Peyer's patches

Peyer's patches increase in number toward the end of the small intestine ○ More are needed there because ?

remaining food residue contains much bacteria

Larger in diameter, but shorter in length at ???, than the small intestine

1.5 m

saclike first part of the large intestine

cecum

- Hangs from the cecum - Accumulation of lymphoid tissue that sometimes becomes inflamed (appendicitis) man

appendix

travels up right side of abdomen and makes a turn at the right colic (hepatic) flexure

ascending colon

travels across the abdominal cavity and turns at the left colic (splenic) flexure

transverse colon

colon: travels down the left side

descending

S-shaped region; enters the pelvis

sigmoid colon

Sigmoid colon, rectum, and anal canal are located in the ?

pelvis

Anal canal ends at the ?

anus

opening of the large intestine

anus

anal sphincter: formed by skeletal muscle and is voluntary

external

anal sphincter: formed by smooth muscle and is involuntary

internal

These sphincters are normally closed except during defecation

anal sphincters

delivers indigestible food residues to the body’s exterior

The large intestine

produce alkaline mucus to lubricate the passage of feces

Goblet cells

[large intestine] Muscularis externa layer is reduced to three bands of muscle, called ?

teniae coli

Part of digestive system for water absorption, forming feces

large intestine

masticate (chew) food into smaller fragments

Teeth

Humans have two sets of teeth during a lifetime

deciduous permanent

A baby has how many teeth by age 2

First teeth to appear are the ?

lower central incisors

Deciduous teeth

baby or milk teeth

Replace deciduous teeth between ages 6 and 12

permanent teeth

A full set of permanent teeth is how many? (with the wisdom teeth)

32 teeth

teeth for cutting

incisors

teeth for tearing and piercing [both terms]

canines (eyeteeth)

teeth for grinding (2)

Premolars (bicuspids) and molars

bicuspids (teeth)

premolars

Two major regions of a tooth

1. Crown 2. Root

exposed part of tooth above the gingiva (gum)

crown

covers the crown

Enamel

found deep to the enamel and forms the bulk of the tooth, surrounds the pulp cavity

Dentin

contains connective tissue, blood vessels, and nerve fibers (pulp)

Pulp cavity

where the pulp cavity extends into the root

Root canal

covers outer surface and attaches the tooth to the periodontal membrane (ligament)

Cement

holds tooth in place in the bony jaw

Periodontal membrane

the root of a tooth consists of: (2)

cement periodontal membrane

is a connector between the crown and root; Region in contact with the gum

The neck

Three pairs of salivary glands empty secretions into the mouth

parotid submandibular sublingual

§ Found anterior to the ears § Mumps affect these salivary glands

parotid glands

empty saliva into the floor of the mouth through small ducts

submandibular & sublingual glands

Mixture of mucus and serous fluids Helps to moisten and bind food together into a mass called a bolus

saliva

saliva contains (2)

salivary amylase lysozymes & antibodies

Dissolves chemicals so they can be tasted

saliva

Soft, pink triangular gland

pancreas

pancreas: Found posterior to the ??? Mostly retroperitoneal

parietal peritoneum

pancreas Extends across the ??? from ??? to ???

abdomen; spleen; duodenum

Produces a wide spectrum of digestive enzymes that break down all categories of food

pancreas

Secretes enzymes into the duodenum

pancreas

??? introduced with ??? neutralizes acidic chyme coming from stomach

Alkaline fluid; enzymes

Hormones produced by the pancreas

insulin glucagon

helps glucose enter the cell

Insulin

breaks down glycogen

Glucagon

* Largest gland in the body ○ Largest internal organ

liver

liver location

Located on the right side of the body under the diaphragm

liver Consists of four lobes suspended from the ??? and abdominal wall by the ???

diaphragm; falciform ligament

Digestive role is to produce bile

liver

Bile leaves the liver through the ??? and enters duodenum through the ???

common hepatic duct; bile duct

Bile is [color], watery solution

yellow-green

bile contains?

- Bile salts - bile pigments (mostly bilirubin from the breakdown of hemoglobin) - Cholesterol, phospholipids, and electrolytes

emulsifies (breaks down) fats

Bile

Green sac found in a shallow fossa in the inferior surface of the liver

gallbladder

When no digestion is occurring, bile backs up the ??? for storage in the gallbladder

cystic duct

When does the gallbladder spurt out stored bile

fatty food enters the duodenum

While in the gallbladder, bile is concentrated by the ?

removal of water

Mental disorders visible in teeth (2)

anorexia nervosa bulimia

○ Fear of being fat ○ No eating at all

anorexia nervosa

○ Guilt of eating ○ Eats then vomits

bulimia

why is bulimia visible in teeth

Gastric acid discolors teeth

means no appetite (which is normal)

anorexia

nasogastric tube (NGT) feeding (2)

gavage lavage

NGT tube for feeding

gavage

NGT tube to remove gastric juice/acid

lavage

Essential processes of the GI tract (6)

ingestion propulsion mechanical breakdown digestion absorption defecation

placing of food into the mouth

ingestion

movement of foods from one region of the digestive system to another

Propulsion

alternating waves of contraction and relaxation that squeeze food along the GI tract

Peristalsis

movement of materials back and forth to foster mixing in the small intestine

Segmentation

○ Mixing of food in the mouth by the tongue ○ Churning of food in the stomach ○ Segmentation in the small intestine

mechanical breakdown | prepares food for further degradation by enzymes

occurs when enzymes chemically break down large molecules into their building blocks

digestion

are broken down to monosaccharides (simple sugars)

Carbohydrates

are broken down to amino acids

Proteins

are broken down to fatty acids and glycerol

Fats

End products of digestion are absorbed in the ??? or ???

blood or lymph

Food must enter mucosal cells and then move into blood or lymph capillaries

absorption

Elimination of indigestible substances from the GI tract in the form of feces

defecation

functions in swallowing

Pharynx

swallowing other term

deglutition

Two phases of swallowing

buccal pharyngeal-esophageal

swallowing phase: ® Voluntary ® Occurs in the mouth ® Food is formed into a bolus ® The bolus is forced into the pharynx by the tongue

buccal

buccal phase: The bolus is forced into the pharynx by the ???

tongue

buccal phase: this rises to close off the nasal passageways

uvula

swallowing phase: ® Involuntary transport of the bolus by peristalsis ® Nasal and respiratory passageways are blocked ® Peristalsis moves the bolus toward the stomach ® The cardioesophageal sphincter is opened when food presses against it

Pharyngeal-esophageal phase

pharyngeal-esophageal phase: The ??? is opened when food presses against it so food can enter the stomach

cardioesophageal sphincter

pharyngeal-esophageal phase: the ??? rises to ensure that its passageway is covered by the ??? so that ingested substances do not enter respiratory passageways

larynx; epiglottis

Gastric juice is regulated by ??? and ??? factors

neural & hormonal

Presence of food or rising pH causes the release of the hormone ???

gastrin

Gastrin causes stomach glands to produce: (3)

§ Protein-digesting enzymes (pepsin/bile) § Mucus § Hydrochloric acid

makes the stomach contents very acidic

Hydrochloric acid

§ Activates pepsinogen to pepsin for protein digestion § Provides a hostile environment for microorganisms

stomach's acidic pH

for protein digestion

pepsin

Protein-digestion enzymes

pepsin rennin

an active protein-digesting enzyme

Pepsin

works on digesting milk protein in infants; not produced in adults

Rennin

are virtually the only items absorbed in the stomach

Alcohol and aspirin

waves of peristalsis occur from the fundus to the pylorus, forcing food past the pyloric sphincter

Peristalsis

the pylorus meters out chyme into the small intestine (3 ml at a time)

Grinding

peristaltic waves close the pyloric sphincter, forcing contents back into the stomach; the stomach empties in 4–6 hours

Retropulsion

movement that act to continually mix the food with digestive juices and (strangely) also plays a major role in propelling foods along the tract

segmentation

type of movement seen only in the large intestine; occurs infrequently and acts to move feces over relatively long distances towards the anus

mass movement

presence of feces in the rectum excites ??? so that the ??? reflex is initiated

stretch receptors; defecation

irritation of the gastrointestinal tract by drugs/bacteria might stimulate the ??? in the medulla, causing vomiting

emetic center

essentially a reverse peristalsis

vomiting

Activities of the Small Intestine (2)

* Chyme breakdown and absorption * Chyme propulsion

○ ??? from the brush border function to: § Break double sugars into simple sugars § Complete some protein digestion

Intestinal enzymes

help to complete digestion of all food groups (2)

Intestinal enzymes and pancreatic enzymes

play the major role in the digestion of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates

Pancreatic enzymes

neutralizes acidic chyme and provides the proper environment for the pancreatic enzymes to operate

Alkaline content

Release of pancreatic juice from the pancreas into the duodenum is stimulated by: (2)

- Vagus nerves - Local hormones

travel via the blood to influence the release of pancreatic juice (and bile)

Local hormones

also target the liver and gallbladder to release bile

Hormones (secretin and CCK)

Needed for fat absorption and absorption of fat-soluble vitamins (K, D, E, and A)

bile

fat-soluble vitamins (4)

(K, D, E, and A)

small intestine: Most substances are absorbed by ??? through cell membranes

active transport

small intestine: Lipids are absorbed by

diffusion

small intestine: Substances are transported to the liver by the ??? or ???

hepatic portal vein or lymph

Activities of the Large Intestine (2)

* Nutrient breakdown and absorption * Propulsion of food residue and defecation

No digestive enzymes are produced here

large intestine

digest remaining nutrients in large intestine

Resident bacteria

large intestine: § Produce some vitamin K and some B vitamins § Release gases

resident bacteria

in large intestine, begins when food residue arrives

Sluggish peristalsis

are the movements occurring most frequently in the large intestine

Haustral contractions

are slow, powerful movements that occur three to four times per day

Mass movements

occurs with relaxation of the voluntary (external) anal sphincter

Defecation

Most foods are used as ???

metabolic fuel

Foods are oxidized and transformed into

adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

is chemical energy that drives cellular activities

ATP

Energy value of food is measured in ?

kilocalories (kcal) or Calories (C)

substance used by the body for growth, maintenance, and repair

nutrient

Major nutrients (4)

 Carbohydrates  Lipids  Proteins  Water

Minor nutrients (2)

 Vitamins  Minerals

diet recommendation in Philippines

Pinggang Pinoy (go, grow, glow)

goal is to eradicate micronutrient deficiency

sangkap pinoy (seal)

The seal that indicates that the product is fortified with essential vitamins and minerals.

sangkap pinoy seal

 Issued in 1992  Six major food groups arranged horizontally

healthy eating pyramid

 Issued in 2011 by the USDA  Five food groups are arranged by a round plate

myplate

Dietary carbohydrates are ?

sugars and starches

Most are derived from plants such as fruits and vegetables

carbohydrates

Saturated fats from animal products (meats)

lipids

Unsaturated fats from nuts, seeds, and vegetable oi

lipids

Cholesterol from egg yolk, meats, and milk products (dairy products)

lipids

contain all essential amino acids

Complete proteins

Most are from animal products (eggs, milk, meat, poultry, and fish)

proteins

those that the body cannot make and must be obtained through diet

Essential amino acids

Legumes and beans also have proteins, but the proteins are ?

incomplete

byproduct of protein

uric acid

Most vitamins function as ?

coenzymes

vitamins are Found mainly in ?

fruits and vegetables

Mainly important for enzyme activity  Foods richest in this nutrient: vegetables, legumes, milk, and some meats

minerals

is all of the chemical reactions necessary to maintain life

Metabolism

substances are broken down to simpler substances; energy is released and captured to make adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

Catabolism

larger molecules are built from smaller ones

Anabolism

are the body’s preferred source to produce cellular energy (ATP)

Carbohydrates

Major breakdown product of carbohydrate digestion  Fuel used to make ATP

Glucose (blood sugar)

As glucose is oxidized, carbon dioxide, water, and ATP are formed

cellular respiration

Events of three main metabolic pathways of cellular respiration

- glycolysis - Citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) - electron transport chain

metabolic pathways:  Occurs in the cytosol  Energizes a glucose molecule so it can be split into two pyruvic acid molecules and yield ATP

glycolysis

metabolic pathways:  Occurs in the mitochondrion  Produces virtually all the carbon dioxide and water resulting from cellular respiration  Yields a small amount of ATP

citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle)

metabolic pathways:  Hydrogen atoms removed during glycolysis and the citric acid cycle are delivered to protein carriers  Hydrogen atoms are split into hydrogen ions and electrons in the mitochondria  Electrons give off energy in a series of steps to enable the production of ATP

electron transport chain

Carbohydrate Metabolism (2)

hyperglycemia hypoglycemia

excessively high levels of glucose in the blood

Hyperglycemia

Excess glucose is stored in body cells as ??? or converted to ???

glycogen; fat

low levels of glucose in the blood

Hypoglycemia

(3) occur to restore normal blood glucose levels

Glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, and fat breakdown

 Insulate the body  Protect organs  Build some cell structures (membranes and myelin sheaths)  Provide reserve energy

fats

is stored in subcutaneous tissue and other fat depots

Excess dietary fat

Excessive fat breakdown causes blood to become

acidic (acidosis or ketoacidosis)

another byproduct of protein

ammonia

are oxidized to form ATP mainly when other fuel sources are not available

Amino acids

released as amino acids are catabolized, is detoxified by liver cells that combine it with carbon dioxide to form urea

Ammonia

is the body’s key metabolic organ

Liver

 Detoxifies drugs and alcohol  Degrades hormones  Produces cholesterol, blood proteins (albumin and clotting proteins)

liver

To maintain homeostasis of blood glucose levels, the liver performs: (3)

glycogenesis glycogenolysis gluconeogenesis

"glycogen formation"  Glucose molecules are converted to glycogen and stored in the liver

glycogenesis

"glycogen splitting"  Glucose is released from the liver after conversion from glycogen

Glycogenolysis

"formation of new sugar"  Glucose is produced from fats and proteins

Gluconeogenesis

Blood proteins made by the liver are assembled from

amino acids

is the most abundant protein in blood

Albumin

Liver cells detoxify ???

ammonia

 Structural basis of steroid hormones and vitamin D  Building block of plasma membranes

cholesterol

Most cholesterol (??%) is produced in the ???; only 15% is from the diet

85%; liver

- cannot freely circulate in the bloodstream; - They are transported by lipoproteins (lipid-protein complexes) known as LDLs and HDLs

Cholesterol and fatty acids

since Cholesterol and fatty acids cannot freely circulate in the bloodstream, they are transported by ???

lipoproteins

transport cholesterol to body cells

Low-density lipoproteins (LDLs)

Rated "bad lipoproteins"

Low-density lipoproteins (LDLs)

why are LDLs rated as bad lipoproteins

they can lead to atherosclerosis

transport cholesterol from body cells to the liver

High-density lipoproteins (HDLs)

Rated "good lipoproteins"

High-density lipoproteins (HDLs)

why are HDLs rated as good lipoproteins

since cholesterol is destined for breakdown and elimination

Energy intake = ??? (heat + work + energy storage)

Total energy output

Interference with the body’s energy balance leads to: (2)

 Obesity  Malnutrition (leading to body wasting)

amount of heat produced by the body per unit of time at rest

Basic metabolic rate (BMR)

Average BMR is about ??? for an average 70-kg (154-lb) adult

60 to 72 kcal/hour

Factors that influence BMR (3)

surface area gender age

Surface area—a small body usually has a (lower or higher) BMR

higher

Gender—??? tend to have higher BMRs

males

Age—??? have higher BMRs

children and adolescents

The amount of ??? produced is the most important control factor of BMR

thyroxine

total amount of kilocalories the body must consume to fuel ongoing activities

Total metabolic rate (TMR)

When foods are oxidized, more than 60% of energy escapes as ???, warming the body

heat

The body’s thermostat is in the ???

hypothalamus

controlled hyperthermia

Fever

If the body thermostat is set too (low or high?), body proteins may be denatured, and permanent brain damage may occur

high

The alimentary canal is a continuous, hollow tube present by the ??? week of development

fifth

bud from the mucosa of the alimentary tube

Digestive glands

The developing fetus receives all nutrients through the ???

placenta

In newborns, feeding must be ???, peristalsis is ???, and vomiting is ???

frequent; inefficient; common

Newborn reflexes (2)

rooting & sucking reflex

helps the infant find the nipple

Rooting reflex

helps the infant hold on to the nipple and swallow

Sucking reflex

Teething begins around age ?

6 months

inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract; can occur at any time

Gastroenteritis

inflammation of the appendix; common in adolescents

Appendicitis

Metabolism decreases with ??

old age

Middle-age digestive problems (2)

○ Ulcers ○ Gallbladder problems

Later middle-age problems (2)

○ Obesity ○ Diabetes mellitus

diabetes mellitus: commonly inborn (auto-immune disease)

DM 1

diabetes mellitus: developed through lifestyle

DM 2

* Activity of the digestive tract in old age ○ ??? digestive juices ○ Peristalsis ??? ○ ??? and ??? are more common

Fewer; slows; Diverticulosis and gastrointestinal cancers

produce an enzyme-poor "juice" containing mucus; found in the submucosa of the small intestine

intestinal glands

produce hydrochloric acid and pepsinogen

gastric glands

anterosuperior boundary of the oral cavity; supported by bone

hard palate

anatomical regions involved in the mechanical breakdown of food

stomach oral cavity

prevents food from moving back into the small intestine once it has entered the large intestine

ileocecal valve

saclike outpocketings of the large intestine wall

haustra

folds of the stomach mucosa

rugae

common passage for food and air

pharynx

uvula hangs from its posterior edge

soft palate

3 extensions/modifications of the peritoneum

mesentery lesser & greater omentum

serous membrane forming part of the wall of the small intestine

visceral peritoneum

serosa of the abdominal cavity wall

parietal peritoneum

structure that suspends the small intestine from the posterior body wall

mesentery

inflammation of the abdominal serosa

peritonitis

condition resulting from the reflux of acidic gastric juice into the esophagus

heartburn

usually indicates liver problems or blockage of the biliary ducts

jaundice

an erosion of the stomach or duodenal mucosa

ulcer

passage of watery stools

diarrhea

causes severe epigastric pain; associated with prolonged storage of bile in the gallbladder

gallstones

inability to pass feces; often a result of poor vowel habits

constipation