E1 Flashcards
(126 cards)
1
Q
Difference between Catabolism and Anabolism?
A
Catab=brkdwn and creates E
-polymers–>monomers by hydration
Anab.=build up and use E
-monomers–>polymers by condensation/dehydration
2
Q
Macromolec.
A
Prot., Carb., lipid and AA
3
Q
Released stored E is used to make up what molec.
A
ATP
E is stored and used in anabolic pathways(not always)
-NADH/FADH2
4
Q
Enzymes principles
A
Activation E
-not consumed/part of rxn
-help decrs. rxn
Bio. catalyst=spead up chemic rxn w/o incr. temp.
Lower Activation E.
Mainly prot.(except=ribozymes)
5
Q
Ribozymes
A
composes of RNA
6
Q
Types of enzymes
A
simple and conjugatd
7
Q
Simple enzymes
A
only proteins
8
Q
conjugated enzymes
A
protein and non protein cofactor
2 types=coenzymes and cofactors
9
Q
Coenzymes
A
organic helper molec.
Types
-accept/donate atoms/electrons
-E carries(NAD/FAD)
-Derived from vitamin
-Coenzyme A(co-a)
10
Q
cofactors
A
Inorganic helper molec.
Types
-minersl=Fe, Cu, Mg, Zn, Ca, Co
11
Q
Names based on the location of actions
A
Created w/in cells and become Exoenzyme(outside cell) or Endoenzyme(w/in cell)
12
Q
Enzymes rate of production
A
Consitutive enzymes(always present)
Regulated enzymes(production induced/repressed b/c of substrate conc.)
13
Q
Types of enzymatic rxn
A
Dehydration(condensation)=H20 is by product
-gluc. and OH grps
Hydrolysis=uses H2O to brk bonds
Transferase
Redox
14
Q
Virulence factor is what type of enzymes
A
Exoenzymes and become more pathogenic
Toxin
15
Q
Factors that influence Enzyme activity
A
Temp.
pH
Osomotic P.
-fresh vs. Sea H2O
-sugar
Substrate conc.
Inhibitors=competative and non-competative
16
Q
Competitive Inhibitors
A
Bind to active site so Substrate cnt bind
Ej=PABA (folic acid–>by specific enzymes
-sulfa drugs
17
Q
Non-compatititve inhibitors
A
Bind of allosteric site to change active site shape so no binding will occur
Can occur w/ negative feedback
18
Q
redox w/ NAD AND FAD
A
The NAD takes 1 H(w/ electron and protein) and takes the other H’s electrons only
NAD + sugar–> NADH + H + SUGAR
19
Q
Generate ATP
A
Phosphorylation=light/photosynth.
Substrate level phosphorylation=kerbs cycle
REDOX(NADH)
Chemiosmosis=using proton gradient across cytoplasmic memb. (ETC)
20
Q
Carb. catabolism types
A
Aerobic respiration
-O2 final electron acceptor
Anaerobic respiration
-inorganic process
Fermentation
21
Q
Cells Resp.
A
Organic molec.
Electron are passed to ETC
Final ETC inorganic ion
3 stages
-glycolysis
-kerbs cycle
-chemiosmosis
22
Q
Glycolysis
A
W/in cytoplasm dont use O2 but can grow
-6C compound=gluc.
-use 2ATP to put phos. on each side
-3 Carbon
:NAD–>NADH goes to ETC
End prod. of glycolysis is molec. of pyruvic acid
23
Q
pyruvic acid enter kerbs.
A
Pyruvic acid–>acetyl CoA
-makes NADH–>NAD
24
Q
TCA/kerbs
A
Euk(w/in mitoch.) and Prok.(w/in cell memb.)
2 acetyl joins=OAAX 4C and create citric acid(6C)
6–>5C then 5–>4c creating NADH
Rearrange 4C twice
-first is substrate level Phos. (ATP)
-FADH2
4C and NADH
25
ETC
Protein electron carries
- Flavin protein
-cytochromes(iron)
:oxidase allows O2 to transfers 2 electron
-Coenzyme Q
:small nonprotein cofactor
26
aerobic ETC
Combine 2H to produce h2O
Moves H into IM-space from matrix (agains conc. gradient)
-needs active transport
Goes back into matrix by ATP synthase protein
-Making potential -->kinetic E
27
Final electron acceptor in ETC for aerobic resp.
OXYGEN
28
Chemiosmosis
E carriers
E released by electron transfer used to pump H+ across the memb.
-NADH=3ATP
-FADH2=2ATP
29
ATP PRODUCTION
Glycolysis(7atp)
-4ATP(uses 2 ATP)
Pyruvic acid -->acetyle CoA
-nad-->nadh
Kerbs cycle(24ATP)
-6NADH
-FADH
-2ATP
ETC
Total net Yield
-prok. (38 and 34 from ETC)
-Euk. (36 ATP)
30
Anaerobic Respiration final electron acceptor
Nitrate=N03-->NO2(N2O, N2)
-nutrient cycling
Sulfate=SO2-->H2S(hydrogen sulfide gas)
-swampy areas(low O2 enviornement)
Carbonate=Co3-->CH4(methane gas)
31
Fermentation
Does not give as much E
Brks down sugar, AA, organic acids, NA
Dnt use kerbs cycle or ETC
Organic molecule as final ETC
only 1-2 ATPper gluc.
Net ATP yields
-2 pyruvic acids, 2NADH, 2ATP
-LATIC ACID and alcohol fermentation
32
Latic Acid
Substrate=gluc.
endproduct=Latic acid creates for NAD+(goes back to glycolysis)
Organisms=Lactobacillus, streptococcus mutans (tooth decay)
Actions
-Food spoilage
-dental caries
-Yogurt
-sauerkraut/sour
33
Alcohol Fermentation
Substrate=OH
End product=ehtanol and Co2
Organism
-Saccharomyces cerevesiae (baker/brewer yeast)
-acetic acid(vinger)
-Acetons/solvents
34
biochem tests
Test medium
pH indicator
Durham tubes=small glass tube traping gas to detect gas production
35
Lipid catabolism
Lipid-->glycerol and FA
Glycerol is funneled into Kerbs cycle
FA brkn dwn by beta-oxidation cycle into acetyl CoA
Good for bioremediation
36
Protein Catabolism
Proteins-->AA
AA transported into cell
Deamination
-NH3-->ammonia and enter kerbs
Decarboxylation and dehydration
-removes carboxyl grp
-AA goes into kerbs cycle
37
Cell division
Prok(binary fission) vs. Euk. (mitosis)
38
Which bacteria does not have cell wall
mycoplasma
39
Archaea have PG
Some might while others might not
Do have cell wall
40
Does Euk. mitoch. have 80 or 70s ribosomes
70s ribosomes
41
Types of bacteria shapes
Cocci, Bacilli, Spiral
42
Cocci arrangments
Diplococci(pairs)
Tetrads
Sarcinae
Streptococci(chains)
Staphlococci(clump/clusters)
43
Bacilli Shapes
"Rod"
Diplobacilli=pairs
Pill Shaped
Fusiform
Coccobacilli
Filamentous
Spore formation
44
Spiral
Helical/curved
Vibrios=short, curved like a comma
-Vibrio cholera and helicobacter pylori
Spirilla=wavy/coiled/rigid
-good for nutrient cycling and environment
Spirochetes=tightly coiled/corkscrew and flexible
-trapanmium pallidum
-lyme dis.
45
Bacteria monomorphic or pleomorhpic
both
corynebacterium=pleomorphic
46
External structure=flagella
Helps w/ motility
Arrangement
-Monotrichous
-Amphitrichous
-Lopotrichous
-Peritrichous
Structure
-Filament=helical protein chain w/ hallow core
:exposed filament
:H antGN=ID
-Hook=attached to filament
:Curved protein that spiral along basal body
-Basal Body(rod)=anchors to the cell wall and PM
47
Flagella Movement
Zig/Zag
-smooth in one direction (runs) =twist of flagella
-choppy/abrupt changes in direction(tumbles)=untwist of flagella
48
Taxis
Directional movement
-chemotaxis=movme. b/c of chemical sig.
Phototaxis=light
Attractant=+ sig. to move towards
Repulsion= -sig. to move away
49
External structure=filaments
Periplasmic flagella (spirochetes)
~ flagella and under outer sheath
Outside of memeb.
Mask flagella and helps it to avoid immune syst.
Helps w/ corkscrew motions and envade tissue
50
External structure=fimbriae and Pili
Not for motility
-composed of Pilin protein
-shorter, straighter and thinner than flagella
Fimbriae=adherence (mucous memb.) to help w/ bacteria colonize
-few(100/cell)
-polar or evenly distributed
-symbiotic attachement
-EJ=E.Coli
Pili=exchange DNA/plasmid and w/o increasing bacteria
-conjugation
-b/w 1-2 cells
51
External structure=glycocalyx
Sugar coat
Composed=polyssacharides, proteins
Capsule=organized and attached to cell wall
-Virulence factor=pathological
-Ej=streptococcus penumonia, anthrax
-K antGN to help ID
Slime layer=unorganized and loosely attached to cell wall
-formation of biofilms=dental plaque on plastic tubing
Other functions
-Serve as reserve supply nutrients
-prevents dehydration and lost nutrients
52
Cell envelope-function
Semi-rigid=maintain shape
Prevents rupture
Anchors flagella
Control pathology
Site of action for anBT
53
Cell envelope-Gram +
Thick PG
-carbs=NAG/NAM backbone w/ peptide side chains cross-linkage
-tx By penecillian
Teichoic Acids
-neg. charged and help reg. + ion movment
Surface polysaccharides
-ej=streptococcus
Lipids=mycolic acids
-w/in mycobacterium
-good for TB and leprosy (good for AF)
54
Cell envelope-Gram -
Thinner PG
Outer memb.
-Lipoprotein
-lipopolysaccharide (LPS)
:O polysaccharides(antGN=ID)
:Lipid A=endotoxin (shock)
Porins
55
Gram stain
Primary Stain=Crystal Violet
Mordant/iodine=fix and helps w/ staying in the PG
Decolorizer=acetone/alchol
-washes away lipid
-dont affect gram (purple)+ but affect gram -
Counterstain=safrainin
-makes gram - pink
56
Non-typical cell wall -types
No cell wall
Archaea
L-forms
57
Non-typical cell wall-no cell wall
No PG only sterols
Mycolic acid(stained w/ AF)
-mycobacterium and nocardia
-gram +
Mycoplasma=smallest bacteria
-causes mycoplasma pneumonia (atypical pnuemonia)
58
Non-typical cell wall-archaea
most lack of cell walls but all have no PG
59
Non-typical cell wall-l form
Mutated cell wall
Defense
damaged by
-lysoszymes (gram +) and antbt
60
Bacterial internal structures
Cytoplasm=H2O gel
Nucleoid
-plasmids=smaller/indi. of chromo.
:5-100s genes
:antiBT R, tolerance for toxic matrials, produce toxin, synth. of enzymes
Ribosomes
Inclusion
cytokeleton=actin
Endospores
61
Bacterial Internal structure-inclusion
Metachromatic granules=phosphate
-stained red w/ methylene blue
-found in algae, fungi, protozoa, bacteria
Polysaccharide granules=store carb
-stain w/ iodine
-glycogen=red/brown staine
-starch=blue/purple stain
Lipid inclusion
-w/in mycobacterium and bacillus
Sulfur granules=E reserves of sulfur
-ej=thiobacillus
Carboxysomes
Gas vacuoles
Magnetosomes
-iron deposits
-decompose toxic peroxide
62
Bacterial internal structures-endospores
Metabolic state=vegetative cell(resting)
Evironemtnal stress=sporangium and crate spore to save genetic material
-vegatative cell dies BUT spore remains
Germination=return to vegatative state(triggered by damage spore coat)
63
classification of bacteria
Phenotype, taxonomic, dx, species/subspecies
64
classification of bacteria-taxomoic
Think of Bergey's manuel of derminative bacteriology manuel
4 Division
-DI=Gram neg.
:non-photosynth. bact.
:anaerobic photosynth.
:cyanobacteria
-DII=gram +
:rods/cocci and mycolic acid(myobacterium)
:filamentous branching cell
-DIII=w/o cell wall
:mycoplasmas
-DIV=unusual cell wall
:archaeobacteria=prok w/ euk. cell wall
65
classification of bacteria-species and subspecies
Bacterial species have similar characterisitic
Subspecies/strain= same bacteria belong to the same species
Serotype=grp w/in species that cn b diff. by antGN
66
Prok. unusual characteristics
Obligate intracellular parasites
-rickettsia and chlamydia
Free living and non pathogenic
-cyanobacteria=blue/green bacteria b/c of chlorophyll
Green and Purple Sulfur bacteria
-no chlorophyll
-no O2
-anerobic environments
-only sugar
Archaea
67
cyanobacteria
does oxygenic photosynthetic
aquatic environments
algae
68
total magnification
ocular mag. (10) multiply by objective mag.
69
Type of microscope for virus and bacteria
Virus=electron microscope
Bacteria=compound/light microscope
70
Resolution versus magnification
Resolution=clarity
Magnification=increase size
71
Control for Resolution-wavelenght
Shorter=better resolution
-longer wavelength=lrg particles of light dnt surround the specimen will while shorter does
-blue/violet let=best (0.2um)
72
Control of Resolution-immersion oil
eliminate refraction/bending of light so light rays can pass the glass and go into the figure
73
Control of resolution-numerical aperture
relative efficiency of a lens to ben light
higher NA=better resolution
74
Contrast
diff. b/w specimen and background
Increase contrast=dim light
Condensor does not control light/contrast
75
Dark or light field has better contrast
dark field
76
organisms for dark field
Good for poorly stain/living cells
Treponema pallidum/syphallius
77
Phase Contrast
Manipulate phase of light (in vs. outphase)
Light diffraction=in phase
-thinner and light less scatter
Dark phase=out of phase
-darker/thicker=more scatter
78
fluorescence Microscopy
Uses short wavelengths w/ high E UV light
3 Important things
-flourescence=absurb short wavelengths of light UV and give E off as longer wavelength
-fluorochromes=flourescent dyes
-fluoescent antBD technique(FAT)
79
Confocal
Uses laser beam light making 2D-->3D
80
Electron Microscope
Shorter wavelength and uses electrons to focus on fig.
-histological sections
Transmission Electron Microscope(TEM)=SEE INTERNAL SECTION
-good for 2D images
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)=see only surface areas
-see thing in 3D
81
Scanned probe microscopy
Good for molecular level
Nanotechnology
82
Prepare Specimens for light microscope=fresh specimen
Wet mounts=saline/H2O or broth
True for size, shape, motility
Poor contrast
Short term=let cells dry out
83
Prepare specimen for light microscope-staining
b/c Rober Koch
Stain=type of technique and uses the dye to find the bact.
Smear=thin film of material microorganisms
Air dry=benctop or on slide warmer
Fixing=heat/chemical
-fixes microorgansims on the slide
-kills bacteria
-perserve cells structure
84
Dye
Chromophore=ion that causes cholor changes
- other ion does not cause color changes
Basic dye=color w/ + ion
-helps to stain Cell memb(mainly neg. )
-ej=cyrstal violet, methylen blue, malchite green, safrainin, calbolfuschin
Acidic dyes=neg. carried cholor
-ej=eosin, acid fuchsin, nigrosin, india ink
-color background
85
Simple stain
Basic dye 1; basic shape/structure
Direct (positive) staining
-+dye attracted to cell memb.
Neg. staining=tech. prepares colorless bacteria against a colored background
-good for seeing overall cell size/shape/ seeing capsule
86
Differential stain
different kinds of bacteria and is a direct stain b/c not stain background
87
Gram stain
Primary stain=crystal violet
Mordant=iodine (increases the affinity in PG w/ CV)
Decolorizing=alcohol aceton which washes away lipids
Counterstain=safranin
88
Acid fast stain
Stain lipid rich cell wall=mycolic acid (waxy)
-stain red
Steps
-primary stain=carbolfuchsin
-strong decolarizes=acid/alcohol
-counterstain=methyline blue
Ej=mycobacterium TB or leprae
89
Negative stain for capsule
Capsule=virulence factors (causes the dis.)
-wont accept dye
90
Endospore staining
Primary stain=minalcet green
Apply heat
decolorize
counterstain=safranin
91
flagella stain
carbolfuchsin and mordent helps w/ visbility on light microscope
92
microorganisms
study organism too small to see w/o microscope
93
microbe
Bacteria,fungi
Photosynth.=light changes CO2-->organic material into atm
Decomp. of organism=organisms die then microbes decomple
-nutrient cycle
:N, O, C, H, H, S
94
types of microorganisms
Bacteria=archaea and eubacteria
-4 bill. years
Fungi=yeast and molds (mcology)
Protists=slimes molds, algae, diatoms
Multicellular =helminths(roundworms, tapewarms)
95
Recombinant DNA
Genetic engineering
Technique to insert DNA into other organism
96
Are microbes ubiquitous?
yes
97
microbial involvment in E and Nutrients flow/human involvment
Photosynth.
decomposition
nutrient cycling
Regulation of Earth temp.
-climate change
-micrboes cn be used to balance green house
-bioremdiaiton=contaminated H2O
:take microbes and use environemtnal issue
:fies issues and be digested w/o a lot of human manipulation
Underground microbes
-Weathering=mineral extraction and soil formation
-used to extract copper from ore(rock)=soil formation
-issues=cn create acids w/ enproducts and issues for acidic H2o
98
Robert hook
Created the term cells
-created the cell theory
99
Anton Van Leeuwenhoek
The 1st to observe live microorgansism
Created the 1st microscope
Father of microorgansims
100
Scientific method
Hypothesis (observation)
Predictions
Testing
Thr/principles
101
Deductive vs. inductive reasonsing
Deductive=philosophy
Inductive=religous/ethics
102
Spontaneous generation vs. biogensis
Spong.=things happen out of thin air
Biogensis=all life comes from pre-existing living forms
103
Redi
tries to disprove spont. gen. by jaws of meat
one seald(maggots) vs. other not seald (not maggots)
104
Rudolf Virchow created which thr.
Biogensis
105
Louis Pasteur
Disprove spong. generation by boiled borth and the flasks
106
Who helped with fermentation?
Pasteur did that
Ferment=sugar to alcohol caused by yeast
-Microbes create alcohol
-Good for milk to stop TB
107
Germ thry of dis.
Microorganisms might causes dis. b/c of microbes in body
Pastuer=silkworm=portazoan parasite
Rober Koch=specific bacteria for specific dis.
-ie bacillus
-first exp. and used anthrax cattle to unthrax cattle
Koche's Postulates=proven exp. steps that need to be followed to prove that a specific organisms cuases a specific. dis.
108
Aseptic Technique
Semmelweiss=fought w/ doctor washing their hands
-in the 1850s
-poor vs. rich
Lister=created the aseptic tech.
-the Pasteur tech./exp. was created
-used carbolic acid (phenol) w/ surgical wonds
109
Taxonomy 3 areas
Nomenclature
Classification
Identification
110
Taxonomy-Nomenclature
Sceintific vs. common names
Linnaeus(person) established nomenclature
-bionomial nomenclature=1 name(genus) and 2(specific/species name)
:hand written(underline) or itilzie
111
Taxonomy-classification
Classify living organism by establishing relationships b/w them
Used to ID an unknown of unknown org. and them grp
Provide a common reference for ID an organisms
112
Taxonomy-level of of classification
Domain
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
genus
Species
Problem=ID asexual bact.
113
Evolution
Dawarin help evolve taxonmy by showing ancestory
Look for
-changes in organsims occur for long period of times
-Natural selection (mech. of evolution)
-adaptive, beneficial variation are preserved
-Descent of modification=
114
Phylogeny
Evolutionary hist. or relatdness of a group of organisms
-goal of taxonomy is to classify orgnaisms accourding to their eveolutionary or phylogentic
-2 organisms shared a common eveolutionary ancestory=similarities
115
Lennaeus =2 kingdom
Plants and animals
Primarily based on morphologic similarities
116
Robert Whittaker=5 kingdoms
Looks @ physical, fossily and physiological similarities
117
Taxonomy 5 kingdoms
Monerans
Fungi
Protists
Plants
Animals
118
Monera
Algea
119
Kingdom Protista
Simple Eukaryotes
Mainly unicellular/few multicellular
Flagella
Lack tissue organization
Water molds, slime molds, protozoa and algae
120
Kingdom fungi
eukaryotes
Unicell yeast
Multicellular molds=hyphae
Mushrroms
Nutrition=absorptive
-absorb dissolved organics through PM
121
Kingdom Plantae
All Multicelluar
Nutrition=photosynth. autotrophs
Some algae, ll mosses, ferns, conifer and flowering plants
122
kingdom Animalia
Multicellular
Nutrients=ingestive(ingest oganic matter through a mouth)
Sponges, jelly fish, worms, insects, mollusks and vertebrates (animals w/ backbones)
123
3 domains and how was it grouped together
Grouped by type of RNA and DNA
-rRNA, tRNA, memb. lipid structure and sensitive antBT
3 types
-euk.
-prok.=bacteria
-prok. archaea
124
Domain Eukarya
Animal
Plant
Fungus
Protista
125
Domain Archae
Prok.
Cell walls dnt contain PG
Live in extremem environments
Have unusual metabolic process
3 kingdoms
-methanogens=strict anaerobes/produce methane from CO2 and H2
-Extremem halophiles=require high conc. of salt for suvival
-thermoacidophiles=grow hot and acidic enironments
126
Domain Bact. (pork.)
Cell wall=PG
gram+/- bacteria, mycoplasma, cyanobacteria, green non sulfur bacteria
