Earth Science Flashcards
(165 cards)
1
Q
Supercontinent that takes its name from the Greek ‘all earth’ It’s the combination of all the continents that were all connected in the early days of the earth, surrounded by the superocean Panthalassa.
A
Pangaea
2
Q
Second most abundant mineral in earths crust composed of silicon and oxygen. This is the natural form of silicon dioxide.
A
Quartz
3
Q
Technique that uses sound to detect underwater objects and navigate
A
Sonar
4
Q
Feature that forms from the collapse of cinder cone, a type of volcano
A
Caldera
5
Q
Pronounced absence of precipitation over a stretch of time
A
Drought
6
Q
This entity “floats” on top of a lower layer when subject to isostasy [[EYE-soss-tuh
see]]. This layer’s most abundant elements by weight are oxygen and silicon. The boundary between this layer of the Earth and the mantle is known as the Moho discontinuity. For the point, name this outermost layer of the Earth.
A
Crust
7
Q
This layer lies beneath the crust of the earth
A
Mantle
8
Q
The border between the crust and the mantle of the earth surface
A
Moho
9
Q
Marine invertebrates that consist of tiny polyps which make up the reefs that serve as an ecosystem for many marine animals
A
Corals
10
Q
Also known as the Last Ice Age, peaked approximately 22,000 years ago and ended about 11,700 years ago.
A
Last Glacial Period
11
Q
Molten rock that is expelled during a volcano eruption.
A
Lava
12
Q
Process of extracting natural gas and oil from shale rock
A
Fracking
13
Q
The warming effect of this natural phenomenon has increased the biodiversity of areas like Nantucket. The Antilles Current connects with this phenomenon at the intersection
of the Florida Strait. For the point, name this warm ocean current that originates in the Florida coast in the southern US and makes its way along the eastern coastline through the North Atlantic and moderates Europe’s climate, largely responsible for the relatively warm temperatures of Western Europe considering its otherwise high latitude.
A
Gulf Stream
14
Q
The geological process by which water and/or wind transports and removes soil
A
Erosion
15
Q
The inner core is the innermost layer of the Earth. Unlike the outer core, it is a solid ball made primarily of what?
A
Iron
16
Q
Marine invertebrates that consist of tiny polyps. The largest reef system in the world is the Great Barrier Reef, which stretches for 1,429 miles over an area of 133,000 square miles.
A
Corals
17
Q
Cycles of regular directional winds that cause dry and rainy seasons in the Earth’s tropics.
A
Monsoons
18
Q
A biome characterized by evergreen trees and high amounts of rainfall. A notable example is the Amazon, which covers 40% of South America.
A
Rainforest
19
Q
Human activities have contributed to the formation of acid rain. A common cause of acid rain is this.
A
The burning of fossil fuels.
20
Q
Subdivisions of periods are referred to as this. Holocene is the name of the current one.
A
epochs
21
Q
These type of rocks are formed after a rock undergoes a change after being exposed to intense heat or pressure. Slate, soapstone, and marble are all examples of this type of rock.
A
Metamorphic
22
Q
Thick masses of ice and snow that covers a vast area of land.
A
Ice caps
23
Q
The periodic cooling phase of waters across the east-central equatorial Pacific. During La Niña events, stronger trade winds push warm water toward Asia.
A
La Niña
24
Q
The layers of the Earth’s atmosphere from lowest to highest
A
troposphere , stratosphere , mesosphere , thermosphere , exosphere , magnetosphere .
25
In these structures, dripping water deposits calcium salts, which either form into mounds called stalagmites or stalactites.
Caves
26
Seismologists measure the magnitude of an earthquake by using this
Richter scale
27
This occurs when winds push surface water away from the shore, resulting in deep water being brought to the surface of the ocean.
Upwelling
28
An area of cold, low pressure air that encircles both the Earth’s polar regions
Polar vortex
29
The last period of the Cenozoic Era that spans from 2.58 million years ago to the present
Quaternary
30
This forms when cold air passes over a lake’s warmer waters, resulting in the rising of warm air and the formation of clouds and snow
Lake-effect snow
31
A type of pollution, is a form of precipitation with very low pH levels. It can kill trees. Common causes of this pollution include the burning of
fossils, typically produced by vehicles and factories.
Acid rain
32
Hot springs which eject streams of water above ground
Geysers
33
Molten rock stored underground until it erupts from volcanoes and becomes known as lava.
Magma
34
Stalagmites and stalactites are rock formations that are found in caves and are typically made of what?
Limestone
35
The upwelling of magma during which event forms a new oceanic crust. This phenomenon was corroborated by the Vines-Matthew-Morley hypothesis,
where a series of magnetic stripes were observed. Convection (+) currents in the
asthenosphere cause this phenomenon, which was first proposed by Harry Hess.
Basaltic crust is created at (*) mid-ocean ridges as a result of this process. For the points, name this process where new oceanic crust is formed as a result of older crust moving apart.
seafloor spreading
36
A type of large, destructive wave that can be caused by seismic events.
Tsunami
37
The primary component of the Earth’s mantle, a region whose upper ductile portion is known as the asthenosphere.
Silicate rock
38
These come in different varieties, including the thin and wispy cirrus and the tall and towering cumulonimbus.
Clouds
39
The layers of this area in nature include the emergent, canopy, and understory. Temperate and tropical are two
different varieties of this area in nature.
Rainforest
40
A type of aquatic habitat home to numerous organisms. The largest of these systems is the Great
Barrier Reef off the coast of Australia.
Coral Reef
41
Structures of the Earth, whose movement can cause continental drift.
Tectonic plates
42
An iron sulfide mineral that is also known as fool’s gold due to its lustrous colors.
Iron pyrite
43
Nebraska, Kansas, and Oklahoma sit in an "alley" named for what weather phenomenon?
Tornado
44
Cumulus, cumulonimbus, and stratus are all types of what?
Clouds
45
Fjords are created by what large accumulations of ice that cover landmasses like Greenland?
Glaciers
46
Zooxanthellae live symbiotically with what cnidarians that form reefs?
Coral
47
Giraffes lives in the wild exclusively on what continent?
Africa
48
What group of large reptiles are believed to have gone extinct due to an asteroid impact in the Yucatán peninsula?
Dinosaurs
49
What large ruptures in earth's crust spew lava and ash?
Volcanoes
50
Roughly 90 percent of the world's earthquakes occur in the basin of what body of water?
Pacific Ocean
51
Weather occurs in which layer of the atmosphere?
Troposphere (also known as the lower atmosphere)
52
Which of the following terms best describes the Ohio River in relation to the Mississippi River?
Tributary
53
Rocks are classified as either metamorphic, sedimentary, or which other type?
Igneous
54
North American, Eurasian, Nazca, and Arabian are examples of which thing?
Tectonic plates
55
Which of the following scientists is best known for their contributions to primatology after having studied chimpanzees for decades?
Jane Goodall
56
Which type of clouds are also known as thunderheads, and are where thunderstorms are found?
Cumulonimbus
57
Retreating glaciers can leave behind deposits of rock and sediment known as what?
Moraines
58
Which layer of the atmosphere lies farthest from the surface of the earth?
Exosphere
59
What type of dinosaur was Sue at the Field Museum in Chicago?
Tyrannosaurus rex
60
This desert is the alleged home of a "Death Worm," which may be the Tartar sand boa.
This desert was formed by the rain shadow of the Tibetan Plateau, and it is the native habitat of the Bactrian camel. China constructed a "Green Wall" to contain, for the point, what large
Asian desert that covers southern Mongolia?
Gobi Desert
61
Mary Anning collected these objects in Lyme Regis. Types of these objects include
coprolites, and an arrangement of these objects comprise "Sue" at Chicago’s Field Museum. Iguanodon and Diplodocus were identified after discovering, for the point, what objects dug up by paleontologists?
Fossils
62
A volcano plot depicts how these substances bind according to the Sabatier principle. The number of active sites in the heterogenous type of these substances are lowered by "Poisoning," and these substances provide an alternate reaction pathway by stabilizing the transition state and lowering the activation energy. For the point, name these substances that speed up chemical reactions.
Catalyst
63
The deadliest instance of this phenomenon affected the cities of Daulatpua and Saturia in Bangladesh. These phenomena that can form from supercells are measured by their intensity on the Fujita scale. Waterspouts are aquatic versions of, for the point, what
devastating natural disasters of revolving air columns?
Tornado
64
Pedology is the scientific field concerned with the formation of this material that is
grouped into layers called horizons. Along with water and gases, this material is primarily composed of sand, silt, and clay. For the point, identify this nutrient-rich mixture of organic material used to plant flowers and crops.
Soil
65
Algeria has constructed a dam named for this color to halt overgrazing, and engineers in several African countries are constructing a Great Wall of this color to contain the Sahara Desert. Along with red, this color names a type of colorblindness that is more prevalent in males. For the point, name this color that identifies a type of beryl known as emerald.
Green
66
These biomes are the predominant environment in which the European chamois goat-antelope is found. The pika is a close relative of the rabbit that can be
found in these biomes that also contain South American camelids such as guanacos and vicuñas. Plant-life typically stops above the snow line in, for the point, what high-altitude biomes that include the Himalayas?
Mountains
67
Plumes of this region are believed to cause volcanic hot spots. The highly ductile
upper portion of this region is known as the asthenosphere, and conductions in the semi liquid portions of this region cause the movement of tectonic plates. For the point, name this region of the Earth located between the inner core and the crust.
Mantle
68
Because it lacks a differentiated core, this phenomenon on the moon is concentrated in the crust. Rocks that naturally exhibit this phenomenon are called lodestones. The geodynamo theory proposes that this phenomenon in the Earth is created by the liquid outer core, causing compasses to point north. For the point, name this phenomenon which
attracts metals like nickel and iron.
Magnetism
69
This structure is above the Moho discontinuity, which separates it from the layer below. The outer part of the lithosphere is made up of this layer, which comes in oceanic and continental forms. This structure is generated at mid-ocean ridges and destroyed at subduction zones and is primarily composed of silica and oxygen. Resting atop the mantle, for the point, name this outermost layer of the Earth’s surface.
Crust
70
When these objects form on top of each other, they are known as "pileus." The term "nimbus" refers to examples of these objects associated with storms. At high altitudes, these objects are composed of ice crystals and are called "cirrus." Lower level varieties of these objects include stratus and cumulus. For the point, name these large masses of water vapor from which rain is released.
Cloud
71
Extremely viscous types of this substance can form coulées. Common forms of this
substance include ʻaʻā [[AH-AH]] and pahoehoe [[pah-HOE-ay-HOE-ay]]. When released underwater, this substance can form its "pillow" variety. Extrusive igneous rocks such as pumice are formed by the cooling of this substance. Prior to being ejected, this substance is known as magma. For the point, name this molten rock which is ejected by volcanoes.
Lava
72
One collection of these features gives its name to the Jurassic period. The process of folding in the crust can create these features. Varieties of these landforms include fold, block, and volcanic. Orogeny
refers to the creation of a new range of these geographical landmasses due to uplift of tectonic plates. For the point, name this type of landmass, examples of which include Kilimanjaro and Everest.
Mountain
73
These objects can be placed into three principal categories based on work by Luke Howard, who developed the common Latin nomenclature used to describe them. Types of these objects include lenticular, nacreous, and contrails. Common classifications include cirrus, stratus, or cumulus. For the point, name these puffs of air and water vapor which form in the sky
Clouds
74
After obtaining the product of this task, concentrating is done to remove gangue
[gang]. This task has open pit, strip, and underground varieties. An effective method of cracking rock for this task was re-setting, which was Alfred Nobels reason for inventing dynamite. For the point, name this task of extracting valuable material from the Earth, such as coal, diamonds, and various ores
Mining
75
Erta Ale in Ethiopia is home to a lake filled with this substance. Domes named for this
substance occur when it piles up near the vent due to slow movement through the conduit. This substance comes in pahoehoe [pahho-ay ho ay] and aa [ah
ah] varieties. This substance cools to form extrusive rocks like pumice and is emitted along with tephra. If this substance cools fast enough, it forms the glassy rock
obsidian. For the point, name this hot fluid ejected from a volcano.
Lava
76
The largest fossil of this dinosaur was excavated at the Cheyenne River Indian Reservation in South Dakota and is nicknamed after its discoverer Sue Hendrickson. That fossil of this dinosaur is
in the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago. This bipedal carnivore had a large head and short forelimbs. For the point, name this large Cretaceous period dinosaur whose name translates to Tyrant
Lizard King.
Tyrannosaurus Rex (or T-rex)
77
This type of rock can be felsic or ma c depending on their chemical composition, and peridotite is one of them found mainly in the mantle. Examples of them include granite and basalt and they can be extrusive or intrusive depending on whether they are formed from lava or magma. For the point, name this class of rocks that is contrasted with sedimentary and metamorphic
igneous rocks
78
This biome is the primary home of the rock ptarmigan [tarmegan] whose Svalbard variety is a terrestrial bird unique to the archipelago. The treeline is the point at which this biome and the Taiga meet. This biomes vegetation includes lichen and moss, but not trees due to high elevation, permafrost subsoil, and low temperatures. For the point, name this cold biome that makes up most of the Arctic circle.
Tundra
79
These features form cryptodomes and leave behind calderas when they collapse. Varieties of a substance produced by these features include pahoehoe
[pa ho-ay ho ay], aa, and pillow. These features come in shield, cone, and composite varieties. More than 75% of the worlds active ones are in the Ring of Fire. Vesuvius and Mount St. Helens are examples of, for the point, what openings in the earths crust that expel lava?
Volcano
80
These events can be described by elastic-rebound theory, and they are common at strike-slip faults. These disasters originate at a point known as their epicenter, and when that point is under the sea, these events can cause tsunamis. The Richter scale measures, for the point, what natural disasters that cause the ground to shake?
Earthquakes
81
German shelters called schneekragens guard against these phenomena by offering safe corridors. Terrain, weather, and packing of a certain material are
part of a three-part model of this phenomenon that can occur in slab and powder types. Loud noises and other disturbances can trigger, for the point, what destructive natural phenomenon also called a snow slide?
Avalanches
82
The boundary between part of this region and its upper neighbor is sometimes named for Keith Bullen or Inge Lehmann. Analysis of seismic waves and the magnetic field have determined the outer portion of this layer is likely a solid ball composed of a nickel-iron alloy.
For the point, identify this innermost geologic layer of Earth.
Earth's Core
83
Temperature increases with elevation in this layer of the atmosphere until its upper
boundary, where the ozone layer can be found. In this layer of the atmosphere, certain cirrus clouds can occur above the tropopause. For the point, name this atmospheric layer where U2 spy planes have operated for decades and from which the extreme sport athlete Felix
Baumgartner jumped and survived.
Stratosphere
84
The cirque and valley-head are types of these formations. Ridges protruding from
these formations are called nunataks, and the thermal state of these formations makes them either temperate or polar. These formations move via basal sliding, and their leftover deposits are called eskers. For the point, identify these slow-moving formations of ice.
Glacier
85
This phenomenon is usually accompanied by eastern movement of atmospheric
convection. This weather pattern is the warm phase of a southern oscillation named for it, and it is responsible for the seasonal rise of ocean temperatures. For the point, identify this warm weather pattern, which is contrasted with La Niña and named for the Spanish for "the boy."
El Niño
86
The deadliest one of these events was prompted by the 1970 Ancash
earthquake, and it became the second-deadliest landslide-related event in
twentieth century South America. Slab types of these events occur by the collapse of a weak layer beneath a layer of tightly packed graupel. For the points, name this rapid flow of snow down a steep slope, such as a mountain.
Avalanche
87
When constructed, the Yakutsk TV Tower was the tallest structure built on
this surface, which can be found in patterns such as palsas and pingos. This material extended south to New Jersey during the last Ice Age. This surface, whose erosion in Siberia led scientists to worry about vast carbon dioxide releases into the air, is common in the tundra. For the points, name this type of ground that remains below the freezing point for two or more years.
Permafrost
88
A form of this event that glows red in the dark is called nuée ardente. A
variation of this event occurred on Mount Unzen in Japan, killing Harry Glicken
alongside Katia and Maurice Krafft. That type of variation occurs when this event is composed of more rock than gas. This natural disaster is often caused by fountain collapses, which prompted this type of event’s destruction of Herculaneum. For the points, name this fast-moving current of hot gas and volcanic matter, collectively known as
tephra, that destroyed the ancient city of Pompeii.
Pyroclastic flow
89
This region is the namesake of a hypothesis that predicts domal topographic uplift events. Post-perovskite most likely exists in the bottom-most part of this region. The asthenosphere lies below the Moho discontinuity in this layer of Earth. The D-double prime layer marks the boundary between this layer and the outer core. For the points, name this largest layer of Earth below the crust.
Mantle
90
This region of Earth’s atmosphere contains the Kennelly-Heavyside layer. The
plasmasphere lies above this atmospheric region. The D layer, E and sporadic E
layers, and the F layer subregions all make up this region. The thermosphere is
encompassed within this region, which also contains parts of the mesosphere and exosphere. For the points, name this electron-charged region of the atmosphere.
Ionosphere
91
These land features’ location qualifies them as ecotones between river and
maritime environments. One of these bodies of water drains into the Atlantic
Ocean, and it was formed at the Punta Gorda by the confluence of the Uruguay and Parana Rivers. For the points, name this body of water with a direct connection to the ocean and with one or more rivers or streams flowing into it.
Estuary
92
Leopold von Buch divided this period into three categories called the Black,
Brown, and White. Remnants (+) of limestone from this geological era were first identified in the French-Swiss mountain range after which this period was named. Constituting the middle of the Mesozoic Era, this is, for the points, what geological period preceded by the Triassic and succeeded by the Cretaceous?
Jurassic Period
93
Pebbles of this rock are nicknamed Apache tears. Gray spherulites at crystallization sites in this rock define its "snowflake" variety. This rock, which is often formed by cooling polymerized felsic lava, contains few crystals due to its viscosity. This extrusive igneous rock has a conchoidal [[kon-KOY-dul]] fracture that makes it a common material for scalpel blades. For the points, name this glossy black
volcanic glass.
Obsidian
94
These structures were found to have eighty shapes according to a
classification system devised by Ching Woo Lee and Choji Magono. Another
classification of these structures is outlined in the Nakaya diagram, which
suggests that its various formations are dependent on supersaturation and
temperature. Formed through the Wegener-Bergeron-Findeisen process, these are, for the points, what single ice crystals that come in columns, dendrites, and needles varieties, in which a common adage says that “no two are alike”?
Snowflake
95
These events occur when the sun and moon are separated by ninety degrees
as viewed from Earth. These events are predicted by measuring the rise of sea
levels, and a small range of heights indicates these events whereas a large range indicates the spring type. Sometimes referred to as a quadrature tide, for the points, what is this tide that occurs when there's a difference between high and low water?
Neap Tide
96
This mountain is home to the Pangboche Crater near its summit and formed
during the Noachian Period. This mountain is associated with the Tharsis Montes chain, and has a surface area larger than Hungary. Of known peaks, this mountain is only possibly surpassed by Rheasilvia on Vesta, standing at a height of (*) 72,000 feet. For the points, name this volcano, the highest of Mars and the Solar System.
Olympus Mons
97
The trailing suction method of this task involves filling hoppers with material
and unloading it once full, while another method involves use of a suction device and a specialized augur. Leonardo Da Vinci developed a schematic for a "drag" tool to perform this task, which was done in ancient times to construct harbors along the Eastern Mediterranean. Sometimes used to recycle sand for "beach nourishment," for the points, what is the term for excavating material from beneath the water?
dredging
98
Because this substance stores as much as ten times more carbon dioxide than
other ecosystems, scientists consider it the most efficient natural carbon sink on
earth. The Tollund Man was preserved in an ecosystem containing this substance,
which makes up fens. Sphagnum moss makes up most of this substance, which is
made of decayed plant matter. For the points, name this substance that can accumulate in bogs.
Peat
99
The removal of sediments cause surface depressions known as blowouts which are
typically associated with the parabolic type of these topographical features, whose slip face is convex in shape. Draas are a large-scale version of, for the point, what topographical features that are mounds of sand formed by wind deposits?
Sand Dunes
100
This structure can be classified into Piedmont and Tidewater types and cuts a U shaped valley of surrounding bedrock to form a fjord. The retraction of these
structures can result in the formation of drumlins or moraines. When these structures generally found in polar regions break apart, they form crevasses or large icebergs. Antarctica is made up of, for the point, what large moving body of dense ice?
Glacier
101
Within these areas are formations made of nodes of calcite, aragonite, or gypsum
known as “popcorn”, and another formation within these areas are made from sheets of calcium carbonates known as flowstones. The erosion of limestone forms, for the point, what natural, underground voids that contain stalactites and stalagmites, a place where spelunkers explore?
Caves
102
According to the Thornthwaite system, the index relating to the effectiveness of this
weather phenomenon in steppe vegetations ranges between 16 and 31, which classifies it as semiarid. For the point, name this weather phenomenon that formed when frozen or liquid
water is released from clouds, whose subtypes include hail, rain, and snow.
Precipitation
103
These are not mountains, but one type of these landforms is created due to slow
convergence of tectonic plates and upward movement of the earth’s crust. Another type of these landforms is formed due to the upwelling of magma and the accumulation of lava in layers. Dissected and volcanic are the two major types of, for the point, what features that are formed by thermal expansion and crustal shortening, and are elevated pieces of land with flat tops?
Plateau
104
Alkali types of these minerals have lower specific gravity than their plagioclase and
orthoclase types. A subclass of these minerals constitutes the continuous branch of Bowen's reaction series, and a subclass of these minerals defines six on the Mohs hardness scale. For the point, name this most abundant class of minerals in Earth's crust.
Feldspar
105
Laura Ingalls Wilder wrote The Long Winter detailing her and her family’s efforts to survive during one of these events. The Storm of the Century caused one of these natural events to occur in March 1993. The National Weather Service states wind speeds must be greater than or equal to 35 miles per hour in order to be, for the point, what type of severe,
prolonged snowstorm?
Blizzard
106
A handful of isolated populations of this animal on St. Paul Island and Wrangel
Island survived until 4,000 years ago, and a frozen specimen of this animal was discovered at Yukagir. For the point, name this tusked, furry creature that roamed the earth during the last Ice Age.
Wooly Mammoths
107
The Miller-Urey experiment tested whether this phenomenon led to the first organic compounds on earth. St. Elmo’s fire can be produced by this phenomenon, whose "ball" variety may be explained by the soliton hypothesis. This phenomenon occurs when the atmospheric field strength exceeds three million volts per meter. For the point, name this phenomenon seen during thunderstorms.
Lightning
108
Some plants in this biome have adapted to utilizing CAM photosynthesis or C4
carbon fixation to minimize the rate of transpiration. Features like ergs and oases can be found in this biome that can be formed by the rain shadow effect or weathering processes. The Gobi and Sahara are examples of, for the point, what type of biome characterized by
little precipitation and arid climate?
desert
109
Hypercynal flows characterize these landforms, which are formed by river water depositing sedimentary rock as turbidites. The Tocantins river meets the Amazon at one of these landforms. For the point, name these features that form from deposited sediments in locations where rivers meet another body of water.
Delta
110
The hanging wall lies above the plane of one of these features in the “normal” type,
while the “reverse” type of these features sees the footwall above the plane. Types of these structures include dip-slip and strike-slip. For the point, name these planar fractures in rock, of which a notable one is named after San Andreas.
Fault
111
To determine this value, one scientist neglected convection and nuclear processes, leading Thomas Huxley to declare that value was magnitudes too small. Lord Kelvin was the first to devise this quantity, which has been calculated using meteorites and zircon deposits.
For the point, name this quantity relating to our planet, which is estimated to be about 4.5 billion years.
Age of the Earth
112
A type of this phenomenon called jökulhlaup [[yo-KOOL-lahp]] results from volcanic subglacial eruptions or geothermal heating. Glacial retreats can result in examples of this phenomenon, including one that carved out the Columbia River Gorge. For the point, name
this phenomenon in which ice dams melt, leading to an overflow of water.
Flood
113
One system that classifies this concept was developed by Charles Warren
Thornthwaite in 1931. The earth’s movements are described by Milankovitch cycles, which describe the effects its eccentricity and tilt have on this concept. This concept is classified based on five characteristic vegetations, including rainforest, grassland, and desert. For the
point, name this concept that describes long-term weather patterns in a particular area.
Climate
114
Some of these natural structures in Rotomahana field were destroyed by the
eruption of New Zealand’s Mount Tarawera. An example of these natural formations is located beside the Hvítá River of Iceland. That formation of this type. known as the Strokkur, has a clear conduit and has been erupting constantly since 1969. For the point, name this type of spring that intermittently ejects steam and boiling water.
Geyser
115
The Moho discontinuity forms the boundary between this region and what lies below it, and the brittle-ductile transition zone divides this region's upper and lower areas. This region forms the uppermost boundary of the lithosphere, and isostatic equilibrium is the process by which this region floats over the mantle. For the point, name this outermost layer of the Earth.
Earth's Crust (or Crust)
116
Wind forces lead these entities to move at a 90-degree angle from the direction of
the surface wind in Ekman transport, and the Coriolis effect plays a large role in developing the "surface" variety of these entities. "Deep" varieties of these entities are driven by thermohaline circulation. Gyres are rotating examples of these entities, which include the Gulf Stream. For the point, name these large flows of water in the ocean.
Ocean Currents
117
Kimberlite pipes are often used to mine this mineral, which is placed at the tip of an apparatus in the Vickers test. This material, which is ranked above corundum on the Mohs scale, is a carbon allotrope consisting of a tetrahedrally bonded covalent network lattice. For the point, name this precious mineral, the hardest naturally occurring material.
Diamond
118
These events can be detected by the presence of a "hook echo" pattern on a Doppler Radar. These events, examples of which include the landspout and waterspout varieties, and their intensity is measured by the TORRO and Fujita scales. A namesake "Alley" in the Central United States depicts, for the point, what meteorological events characterized by a
violent funnel-shaped rotating cloud of air?
Tornado
119
These markings, which are excavated by paleontologists through the process of
lithification, were discovered by a team led by Mary Leakey in Laetoli and likely belonged to the Australopithecus afarensis species, providing evidence of bipedalism in early hominins. For the point, name these impressions that are left on a surface when a human or animal takes a step?
Footprint
120
Two oceanic plates colliding at a convergent boundary forms these landforms. The most famous example of adaptive radiation occurs in these ecosystems, which Charles Darwin investigated finches in. For the point, name these landforms surrounded completely by water, examples of which include Galapagos.
Island
121
Climates in this biome are categorized under ET in the Koppen climate classification. Soil in this biome often contains large amounts of biomass stored as methane under layers of permafrost. This biome can be found in mostly arctic, alpine, and Antarctic variants. For the point, name this biome characterized by little tree growth, low rain and snowfall, and extensive moss and lichen growth.
Tundra
122
While the "complacent" type of these features show little variation, "sensitive" types allow for easier cross-dating to assign dates to when they were formed. These things, which are compared on skeleton plots, are "crowded" during periods of drought. Dendrochronology is the process of dating these things, which are affected by amounts of rainfall and are found in the cambium. For the point, name these circular patterns found in
wood.
Tree Ring
123
Edward Lorenz believed that the long-term performance of this task was impossible
due to the butterfly effect. Remote sensing and radiosondes [["radio"-sahndz]] are used in this task, which is performed pseudo-scientifically on February 2nd with a groundhog. For the point, name this task commonly performed by a meteorologist, who might state that rain is likely tomorrow.
Weather forecast
124
The predecessors of these rocks undergo diagenesis. Arkose is a feldspar-rich
variant of one example of these rocks, while another example of these rocks is primarily composed of calcite and aragonite. Sandstone and limestone are examples of these rocks. For the point, name these rocks that are formed from cementation of particles and are contrasted with igneous and metamorphic rocks.
Sedimentary rocks
125
A substance referred to as “virga” can be released from these objects that can be
divided into roll and shelf types. Human activity can form instances of these entities known as contrails, while nacreous varieties of these entities form above the stratosphere. The appearance of halos from these objects form via the passage of sun light through crystals of ice in the cirrus varieties of these objects. Cumulonimbus is one variety of, for the point, what fluffy white objects in the sky?
Clouds
126
The North Sea is an epeiric sea on one of these entities. This entity ends at the point
of an increasing slope called a 'break', before which lie the regions called the slope and rise. The pelagic environment of these entities comprise the neritic zone, while the benthic zone is its seafloor region. For the point, name these portions of a continent submerged under an area of shallow water that can be exposed when sea levels drop.
Continental shelf
127
These bodies of water become enriched with nutrients during eutrophication. When a river meander is cut off, the “oxbow” varieties of these bodies of water can form. For the point, name these bodies of water that come in glacial and fluvial varieties, examples of which include Michigan and Superior.
Lake
128
These structures that can produce tephra were observed by the Voyager 2
spacecraft on Triton. The Pacific Ring of Fire is home to many of these structures that can be found at convergent and divergent tectonic plate boundaries, examples of which include Krakatoa and Mauna Loa. Cinder cone, submarine, and shield are all types of, for the point,
what type of structure from which lava erupts?
volcano
129
One phenomena associated with these events is subject to Omori’s law, which
describes how the frequency of those events decreases reciprocal to the amount of time elapsing from its cause. These events are concentrated at their hypocenter, or focus, and
these events can be followed by aftershocks. For the point, identify this type of seismic event whose magnitude is measured on the Richter scale.
Earthquakes
130
The Aleutian [[ah-LOO-shen]] arc was formed by subduction along these types of
locations, which were explored by vehicles such as Kaiko and Trieste. The deepest one of these locations is named after a nearby Pacific Island Chain, with its deepest point being Challenger Deep. For the point, name these depressions in the ground caused by tectonic plate movement, some of which include the Marianas.
Oceanic Trenches
131
A variety of this mineral, along with iridium, is found at the K-Pg boundary and
provides evidence for the hypothesis that an asteroid impact killed the dinosaurs. This mineral is found at the bottom of Bowen’s reaction series. The “shocked” variety of this mineral was found at the Chicxulub crater, and its chemical name is silicon dioxide. For the point, name this mineral that is a seven on the Mohs hardness scale.
Quartz
132
Locations such as Haua Fteah and Atapuerca contained stone tools from this species' Mousterian culture. This species, which interbred with the closely related Denisovan group, became extinct roughly 30,000 years ago. For the point, name these hominids with heavy brows, named for the German valley where their remains were discovered.
Neanderthals
133
Many ammonoids and conodonts went extinct during this period's Carnian pluvial
episode. During this period, Pangaea began to separate into the continents of Laurasia and Gondwana. This period, which followed the mass extinction of trilobites in the "Great Dying," gave rise to the archosaurs. The Permian era preceded, for the point, what first
geologic period in the Mesozoic Era, named for a set of three distinct rock layers?
Triassic Period
134
These objects are harvested to make beer by the Quidi Vidi Brewing Company in
Newfoundland. The largest current one of these objects was first detected in the Weddell Sea and the largest one on record, B-15, broke off from the Ross Ice Shelf in March, 2000. Mostly found near Greenland and Antarctica is, for the point, what type of floating, frozen object that sunk the RMS Titanic?
Iceberg
135
These types of organisms are classified by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, which is
also responsible for their protection. The IUCN’s Red List lists the status of these creatures, and they're broken down into categories with abbreviations such as VU or CR. The gray wolf and the humpback whale are examples of, for the point, what type of animals that are classified as vulnerable, threatened, and near-extinct?
Endangered Species
136
Ralph Solecki controversially claimed that the presence of flower pollen with a
buried member of this species was evidence of ritual burial. This species is believed lto have frequently interbred with the closely related Denisovans
[[deh-NEE-soh-vins]]. The 1983 discovery of this species's hyoid bone suggests they
had the ability to talk. A valley in Western Germany names, for the point, what
cave-dwelling relatives of modern humans?
Neanderthal
137
Due to having temperatures near the surface of the sun, this region passes the
Curie temperature and is not ferromagnetic. This layer, whose existence is demonstrated by PKiKP waves, is composed of a solid iron-nickel alloy. The liquid outer core surrounds, for the point, what solid metal layer of the Earth?
Inner Core
138
Large circular holes in these objects are called moulins [[MOO-lins]]. Deposits
created by these objects include eskers and drumlins. Cirques [[SIRKS]], fjords,
and moraines were created by the retreat of these objects which break down at the
coast via calving [[KAV-ing]], forming icebergs. Greenland and Antarctica are covered in, for the point, what massive ice formations?
Glaciers
139
These objects can form when an empty cavity, such as a gas bubble, is filled
with groundwater that deposits crystalline minerals. These objects are smaller
analogs to vugs and crystal caves. Coming from the Greek word for “Earth-Like,” for the point, what are these hollow rocks containing crystals?
Geode
140
When this process occurs over a single geographic range, it is termed
"sympatric." The allopatric type of this process occurs due to geographic isolation, and new branches on phylogenetic [[FY-loh-"genetic"]] trees are formed by this process. The inability of two populations of organisms to breed is caused by, for the point, what ecological process?
Speciation
141
This rock, the intrusive counterpart of rhyolite, is the most common material
found in Bornhardts. This rock forms its namesake domes at landmarks such as
Sugarloaf Mountain and Yosemite's Half Dome. This rock contains crystals of
feldspar and quartz and predominantly makes up the continental crust. A
coarse-grained igneous rock, for the point, what is this material commonly used to make high end countertops?
Granite
142
Common causes of these events, the largest of which occurred in Washington
in 1980, include increases in pore pressure and hydrostatic pressure in surface cracks. The field of predicting these events is called slope stability analysis. These events, which are a form of mass wasting, are often preceded by heavy rains destabilizing the surface layer. For the point, name these potentially catastrophic movements of rock and sediment down a slope.
Mudslides
143
This location is the origin of toxic dust storms that spread tuberculosis and
cause cancer in former fishing towns such as Mo'ynoq[[MOY-nok]].Desertification of
this location was driven by agricultural diversion of the Syr Darya and Amu Darya rivers. Formerly located on the border of Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, for the point, what is this now mostly dried up Central Asian lake?
Aral Sea
144
As part of Project Nekton, this feature was explored by the Auguste Piccard
designed Trieste [[tree-ESS-teh]] vessel. One portion of this feature was explored by the Kaiko and Nereus unmanned submarines. This feature's southern end contains its deepest point, the Challenger Deep. Located near an American-controlled Pacific island group, for the point, what is this deepest point in the ocean?
Mariana Trench
145
This range's northern end is home to the Mountain Tapir, and this mountain range is the natural habitat of chinchillas and guinea pigs. Wild camelids found in this mountain range include the vicuña [[vih-KOO-nyah]] and guanaco [[gwah-NAH-koh]]. For the point, name this South American mountain range home to alpacas and llamas.
Andes Mountains
146
This compound form, which is divided into driving and driven varieties, is the most
abundant and potent greenhouse gas in Earth's atmosphere. Suddenly exceeding the saturation point of this compound form in the atmosphere can lead to cloudburst precipitation. Concentration of this compound form is measured as humidity. For the point, name this greenhouse gas which condensates to form clouds.
Water Vapor
147
These objects begin to form when supercooled water comes into contact with dust nucleation sites. These objects form after repeated passing through updrafts in cumulonimbus [[kyoo-mew-loh-NIM-bes]] clouds during severe storms. For the point, name these icy objects that fall as precipitation.
Hail or Hail stones
148
This region is home to formations such as black and white smokers. Cold seeps along
this region can result in the formation of brine pools. Organisms that live near this region are collectively known as benthos, which often cluster around hydrothermal vents. For the point, name this rocky region at the bottom of the ocean.
Sea floor
149
Studies of these systems introduced Strahler [[STRAY-ler]] numbers for describing branch order. Riparian [["rye"-"PAIR"-ee-an]] zones form buffer areas around these systems. Cutting off sections of these bodies of water forms oxbow lakes. For the point, name these
bodies of water that flow into the sea at deltas.
River
150
This region can be depicted with the three-cell model, which includes the Hadley
Cells. This layer extends for eleven miles above sea level at the equator, ending at its "pause." Most of the Earth's weather occurs in this layer, which also has the majority of the atmosphere's mass. For the point, name this lowest layer of the atmosphere.
Troposphere
151
The namesake "locking" of these phenomena occurs when a body's rotation and orbit become synchronized. On Earth, these phenomena are strongest at a syzygy [[SIH-zih-jee]] and are called "springs," while the weakest types of these phenomena are called "neaps." The gravity of the Sun and Moon on the ocean cause, for the point, what phenomenon, the regular rising and falling of ocean water.
Ocean Tides
152
When formed under an ice sheet, these objects can form tuyas. Most of the
destruction caused by these objects is the result of pyroclastic flows. When releasing low viscosity material, these objects can form their "shield" variety. Commonly forming over hot spots and magma chambers, for the point, what are these mountains that can erupt and release lava?
Volcano
153
The “deep” variety of these phenomena is driven by thermohaline
[[ther-moh-HAY-leen]] circulation. These phenomena form the confines of gyres [[GIRES]] such as the Sargasso Sea. Benjamin Franklin was the first person to chart one of these phenomena in the Atlantic Ocean. The Gulf Stream is a prominent warm-water version, for
the point, what large flows of water that circulate water through the world's oceans?
Ocean Currents
154
The Australian town of Lightning Ridge produces this material's "black" form. This
material fluoresces UV light and can create rainbow-like reflections. For the point, name this hydrated, amorphous type of silica, whose gem grade varieties are noted for their iridescence.
Opal
155
The most common type of this ecosystem is the "fringing" variety, which grows in
shallow waters just below the surface. These ecosystems can create atolls when the island around which they grow erodes below sea level. Colonies of polyps held together by calcium carbonate from, for the point, what ecosystem, the largest of which is the Great Barrier in Australia?
Coral Reef
156
When this substance is extruded underwater, it can form its "pillow" variety. This substance can be classified as either ʻaʻā [[AH-AH]] or pahoehoe [[pah-HOY-HOY]] based on its texture and makeup. Pumice [[PUM-iss]] and obsidian are examples of igneous rocks formed by the cooling of this substance. For the point, name this form of molten rock created when magma reaches the Earth’s surface
Lava
157
This substance naturally sorts into distinguishable layers known as "horizon," and its “O” type contains the highest amount of organic material. Loam [["LOW"-um]] is a type of this substance particularly valuable for agriculture, and this substance can be enriched with
humus [[HYOO-muss]]. This substance is composed of organic matter, sand, silt, and clay. For the point, identify this substance in which seeds are planted.
Soil
158
One variety of these organisms can leave behind hardened scars known as their
namesake "boot." Carmine dyes are made from a type of beetle that lives on these
organisms, one species of which, Peyote [[peh-YOH-teh]], contains the hallucinogen
mescaline [[MEH-skah-lin]]. The pin cushion and Saguaro are examples of, for the point, what desert plant which is covered in spines?
Cactus
159
The formation of this material lends its name to the Carboniferous
[[kar-boh-NIH-fer-us]] period, during which it was deposited in namesake seams and beds. This material is made from the deposition and compression of ancient plant matter, which eventually solidifies to become peat and this material. Varieties of this material include lignite, anthracite, and the bituminous variety. For the point, name this solid fossil fuel.
Coal
160
These events are predicted by pressure recorders in the DART system. Abrupt deformation of the sea floor can cause a vertical displacement resulting in one of these events. In 2004, an earthquake
along the Burma Plate and the Indian Plate caused one of these catastrophic events in the Indian Ocean. For the point, name these large waves with a Japanese name which can devastate coastal regions.
tsunami
161
On the Koppen climate classification, this climate is classified as BWh and BWk. The cold varieties of these climates typically occur in the rain shadow of high mountains. This climate occupies
about one-third of global land surface and is characterized by great aridity. For the point, name this hot, dry climate that receives little rainfall and is typically known for having vast amounts of sand.
desert
162
Early pioneering work on chaos theory was done by Edward Lorenz while studying the
pattern of this entity on a digital computer. A company called [this entity] underground gives real-time updates on it. This entity is a catch-all term for phenomenon occurring primarily in the troposphere. For the point, name this state of the atmosphere which scientists try to forecast through readings of
temperature and precipitation activity.
weather
163
Dangerously powerful storms on this landmass that can cut between mountain passes are locally known as Herbies and primarily impact the region surrounding McMurdo Sound. The largest known oceanic current flows clockwise around this landmass. Krill named for this landmass are probably the most abundant species on the planet. For the point, name this continent located at the South pole.
Antarctica
164
This biome is home to bogs known as muskeg. This biome experiences unequal temperature distributions called thermokarst. Trees like the Douglas fir are adapted to this biomes high moisture
levels. The tree line marks the end of this biome and the start of tundra. For the point, name this largest terrestrial biome known as boreal forest.
Taiga
165
Material is rapidly added or removed from one of these structures in a Slug test. Darcy's Law, in combination with the conservation of mass, can determine the flow rate within these structures. The artesian variety of these formations undergo positive pressure and are often made into wells. For the point, name these layers of underground porous rocks which store water.
aquifers
