Endocrine and reproductive systems

Question 1

what hormones are released by the hypothalamus?

Answer 1

thyrotropin releasing hormone 
corticotropin releasing hormone
gonadotropin releasing hormone
growth hormone releasing hormone
prolactin releasing hormone

Question 2

how are the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary connected?

Answer 2

blood vessels

Question 3

how are the hypothalamus and posterior pituitary linked?

Answer 3

neurones

Question 4

what hormones does the anterior pituitary release?

Answer 4

LH
FSH
Thyroid stimulating hormone
prolactin
growth hormone

Question 5

what hormones does the posterior pituitary release?

Answer 5

oxytocin

ADH

Question 6

testicular function

Answer 6

GnRH causes release of LH and FSH
LH causes leydig cells to release testosterone
FSH activates sertoli cells to carry out spermatogenesis, which also requires testosterone to occur
release of testosterone inhibits production of GnRH and FSH

Question 7

which cells carry out spermatogenesis?

Answer 7

sertoli cells

Question 8

which cells produce testosterone?

Answer 8

leydig cells

Question 9

ovarian function

Answer 9

GnRH released causing LH and FSH to be released which act on ovarian follicles and corpus luteum to produce oestrogen and progesterone

Question 10

how is the male reproductive tract formed?

Answer 10

Mullerian/ paramesonephric duct degenerates

Wolffian/ mesonephric duct develops into vas deferns, epididymis and seminal vesicles

Question 11

how is the female reproductive tract formed?

Answer 11

Wolffian/ mesonephric duct degenerates

Mullerian/ paramesonephric duct develops into female fallopian tubes, uterus and upper part of vagina

Question 12

day 1

Answer 12

fertilisation
acrosome reaction
cortical reaction
zona reactions

Question 13

day 3

Answer 13

Morula formation
days 1-3 = cleavage
forming 12-16 cells - blastomeres

Question 14

what are the cells of the morula called?

Answer 14

blastomeres

Question 15

day 5

Answer 15

blastocyst
blastocoel develops
inner cell mass splits into epiblast and hypoblast

Question 16

day 6/7

Answer 16

implantation of blastocyst

trophoblast implantation

Question 17

day 15

Answer 17

gastrulation
invagination of epiblastic cells through primitive streak
bilaminar germ disc becomes trilaminar germ disc
forms mesoderm, endoderm and ectoderm

Question 18

what are the symptoms of pregnancy?

Answer 18

varicose veins
glucose in urine
urinary frequency
urinary infection
breathlessness
breast enlargement
swollen ankles
flushed and hot 
anaemia

Question 19

what are the main hormones involved in pregnancy?

Answer 19

hCG
progesterone
oestrogen
human placental lactogen
prostaglandins
oxytocin
relaxin
prolactin

Question 20

what does hCG do?

Answer 20

promotes progesterone and oestrogen secretion by corpus luteum until placenta takes over at 10-12 weeks
detected 10 days after fertilisation to give positive pregnancy test result

Question 21

what does progesterone affect?

Answer 21

uterus
homeostasis
breast

Question 22

how does progesterone affect the uterus?

Answer 22

smooth muscle relaxation - preventing fetal expulsion

cervical plug formation which acts as microbial barrier

Question 23

how does progesterone affect homeostasis?

Answer 23

affects the respiratory centre and cause hyperventilation

affects RAAS system - increasing Na+ reabsorption

Question 24

how does progesterone affect breasts?

Answer 24

lobular tissue development

inhibits milk production

Question 25

what does oestrogen act on in pregnancy?

Answer 25

uterus | breast

Question 26

how does oestrogen affect uterus?

Answer 26

myometrial cell growth connexin insertion - gap junctions between myometrial cells inserts oxytocin receptors causes production of PGE2

Question 27

how does oestrogen affect the breasts?

Answer 27

breast duct development | inhibits milk production

Question 28

what does human placental lactogen affect?

Answer 28

mother and fetus

Question 29

how does human placental lactogen affect mothers?

Answer 29

causes insulin resistance to decrease glucose utilisation and increases blood glucose lipid break down - increased FFA production

Question 30

how does human placental lactogen affect fetuses?

Answer 30

promotes growth as more glucose available from mother

Question 31

what FFAs?

Answer 31

free fatty acids | can move in/ out of cells

Question 32

what prostaglandins are produced in pregnancy?

Answer 32

PGE2 | PGF2-alpha

Question 33

what does PGE2 do?

Answer 33

softens vcervix

Question 34

what does PGF2 alpha do?

Answer 34

contracts uterus

Question 35

what does prolactin do?

Answer 35

breast tissue development during pregnancy | causes milk production post-delivery, previously inhibited by oestrogen and progesterone

Question 36

what does relaxin do?

Answer 36

softens cervix and pelvic ligaments in preparation for labour and delivery

Question 37

what does oxytocin do?

Answer 37

causes uterine contraction during labour, inhibited by progesterone during pregnancy causes milk ejection post-delivery

Question 38

what is pre-eclampsia?

Answer 38

condition seen after 20 weeks gestation | pregnancy-induced hypertension in associated with proteinuria

Question 39

what is proteinuria?

Answer 39

protein in urine

Question 40

what condition should be looked out for when there is hypertension detected during pregnacy?

Answer 40

pre-eclampsia

Question 41

what are the maternal risks associated with pre-eclampsia?

Answer 41

eclampsia | placental abruption and haemorrhage

Question 42

what are the foetal risks associated with pre-eclampsia?

Answer 42

prematurity | intrauterine growth retardation

Question 43

what is intrauterine growth retardation?

Answer 43

condition where unborn baby is growing at a slower rate than it should be

Question 44

how to treat pre-eclampsia?

Answer 44

labetalol

Question 45

what does the ductus arteriosus form?

Answer 45

ligamentum arteriosum

Question 46

what does the foramen ovale form?

Answer 46

fossa ovalis

Question 47

what does the ductus venosus form?

Answer 47

ligamentum venosum

Question 48

what does the umbilical vein form?

Answer 48

ligamentum teres

Question 49

what do the umbilical arteries form?

Answer 49

medial umbilical ligaments

Question 50

umbilical blood vessels

Answer 50

1 umbilical vein and 2 umbilical arteries

Question 51

what changes occur at birth?

Answer 51

``` first breath causes pO2 to rise leads to pulmonary vasodilation right heart pressure falls foramen ovale closes venous blood goes to lungs causing pO2 to rise ```

Question 52

what blood group are universal acceptors?

Answer 52

AB positive

Question 53

what blood group are universal donors?

Answer 53

O negative

Question 54

rhesus disease

Answer 54

rhesus immunoglobulin Anti-D given to rhesus negative mothers before and after birth intramuscularly when the fetus is rhesus positive also given after miscarriage or abortion

Question 55

How does Anti-D work?

Answer 55

competitively binds and inactivates rhesus antigens, keeping them undetected by maternal antibodies

Question 56

Thyroid function

Answer 56

hypothalamus secretes thyrotropin releasing hormone causing the anterior pituitary to release thyroid stimulating hormone acts on the thyroid causing it to release T3 and T4

Question 57

what are the thyroid hormones?

Answer 57

T3 - triiodothyronine | T4 - thyroxine

Question 58

T3

Answer 58

responsible for almost all thyroid activity | half life = 1 day

Question 59

T4

Answer 59

largely converted to T3 intracellularly | half life = 7 days

Question 60

what produces T3/T4 ?

Answer 60

follicular cells secrete thyroid hormone

Question 61

hypothyroidism

Answer 61

hashimoto's thyroiditis

Question 62

how does hypothyroidism present?

Answer 62

``` lethargy fatigue weight gain cold intolerance dry skin/ thinning hair ```

Question 63

how to investigate hypothyroidism?

Answer 63

high levels of TSH reduced levels of T3/T4 Anti-TPO antibodies

Question 64

how to treat hypothyroidism?

Answer 64

levothyroxine

Question 65

hyperthyroidism

Answer 65

grave's disease

Question 66

how does hyperthyroidism present?

Answer 66

``` weight loss heat intolerance tremor tachycardia diarrhoea goiter exopthalmus ```

Question 67

what is the normal position of the uterus?

Answer 67

anteverted and anteflexed

Question 68

what inhibits uterine contraction caused by oxytocin during pregnancy?

Answer 68

progesterone

Question 69

what respiratory complication could occur in a premature newborn?

Answer 69

respiratory distress syndrome

Question 70

how can respiratory distress syndrome be prevented?

Answer 70

corticosteroid treatment to the mother 24 hours pre-delivery

Question 71

what produces surfactant?

Answer 71

type 2 alveolar cells

Question 72

when does surfactant production take place?

Answer 72

starts at 24-28 weeks | increases significantly after 34 weeks

Question 73

what stimulates surfactant production?

Answer 73

hormones: - cortisol - thyroxine - prolactin

Question 74

which hormone is most important in surfactant production?

Answer 74

cortisol

Question 75

how does respiratory distress syndrome appear on an x-ray?

Answer 75

lung fields have a hazy appearance

Question 76

how to treat respiratory distress syndrome post-birth

Answer 76

post-birth = oxygen, supportive continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP), administer surfactant